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Bihari culture

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Bihari culture refers to the culture of the Indian state of Bihar. Bihari culture includes Mithila culture, Bhojpuri Culture and the culture of Magadha.

Language and literature

Main articles: Languages in Bihar and Literature in Bihar
See also: Maithili language, Maithili literature, Bhojpuri, Angika, Magahi, Magadhi Prakrit, Hindi in Bihar, and Urdu Language in Bihar
Language and script
 
 
(L) Bhojpuri story written in Kaithi (1898), (R) Maithili language in Tirhuta and Devanagari scripts
Famous Bihari Author
 
 
(L) Ramdhari Singh Dinkar, (R) Phanishwar Nath Renu

Bihar has produced a number of writers of Hindi, including Raja Radhika Raman Singh, Shiva Pujan Sahay, Divakar Prasad Vidyarthy, Ramdhari Singh 'Dinkar', Ram Briksh Benipuri, Phanishwar Nath 'Renu', Gopal Singh "Nepali" and Baba Nagarjun. Mahapandit Rahul Sankrityayan, the great writer and Buddhist scholar, was born in U.P. but spent his life in the land of Lord Buddha, i.e., Bihar. Hrishikesh Sulabh and Neeraj Singh (from Ara) are the prominent writer of the new generation. They are short story writer, playwright and theatre critic. Arun Kamal and Aalok Dhanwa are the well-known poets. Different regional languages also have produced some prominent poets and authors. Sharat Chandra Chattopadhyay, who is among the greatest writers in Bengali, resided for some time in Bihar. Upamanyu Chatterjee also hails from Patna in Bihar. Devaki Nandan Khatri, who rose to fame at the beginning of the 20th century on account of his novels such as Chandrakanta and Chandrakanta Santati, was born in Muzaffarpur, Bihar. Bhikhari Thakur is known as the Shakespeare of Bhojpuri. Heera Dom, a Bhojpuri poet has contributed to Dalit literature. Vidyapati is the most renowned poet of Maithili (c. 14–15th century). Satyapal Chandra[1] has written many English best-seller novels and he is one of India's emerging young writer.

Despite of the large number of speakers of Bihari languages, they have not been constitutionally recognised in India, except Maithili which is recognised under the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India. Hindi is the language used for educational and official matters in Bihar.[2] These languages was legally absorbed under the subordinate label of Hindi in the 1961 Census. Such state and national politics are creating conditions for language endangerment.[3] The first success for spreading Hindi occurred in Bihar in 1881, when Hindi displaced Urdu as the sole official language of the province. In this struggle between competing Hindi and Urdu, the potential claims of the three large mother tongues in the region – Bhojpuri, Maithili and Magahi were ignored. After independence Hindi was again given the sole official status through the Bihar Official Language Act, 1950.[4] Urdu became the second official language in the undivided State of Bihar on 16 August 1989. Bihar also produced several eminent Urdu writers including Sulaiman Nadvi, Manazir Ahsan Gilani, Abdul Qavi Desnavi, Paigham Afaqui, Jabir Husain, Sohail Azimabadi, Hussain Ul Haque, Dr. Shamim Hashimi,[5] Wahab Ashrafi[6] etc.

Bihar has also produced some prominent poets and authors who write in various regional languages:

Performing arts

Music and Dance of Bihar
 
 
 
 
(Top-Left) Bharat Ratna Ustad Bismillah Khan, from Dumraon, Bihar, (Top-Right) Padma Bhushan Sharda Sinha
(Botton-Left)Magahi folksingers, (Borron-Right) Jat Jatin folk dance

Drama and theatre

In 1984, Satish Anand had evolved a new 'Bidesia Style' for modern Indian theatre.[9] The new style used elements of traditional folk theatre from indigenous Bihari culture.[10] Some other traditional Bihari forms of theatre include those centred around Raja Salhesh, and the festival of Sama Chakeva originating from the Mithila region of Bihar.[11]

Dance

Main article: Dance of Bihar
See also: Jhijhiya, Domkach, and Jat Jatin

Jhijhiya is a ritual dance mostly performed at time of Dusshera, in dedication to Durga Bhairavi, the goddess of victory.[12] In Bihar, Domkach is ceremonial dance form and performed in Mithila and Bhojpur regions.[13] Bideshiya is a form of dance-drama that is believed to have been created by Bhikhari Thakur, a barber with a passion for drama.[14] It deals with social issues and conflict between traditional and modern, rich and poor. Fagua is a dance and also a type of folk song performed during Holi. Painki evokes the infantry's agility, courage, and excitement.[15] Danced on flat ground, it highlights the dancers' weapon-handling ability. Jat Jatin Dance of the Mithila region of Bihar is supposed to be performed on moonlit nights during the monsoons.[16]

Music

Main article: Music of Bihar
See also: Maithili music

Bihar has contributed a lot to the Indian classical music. Bihar has produced musicians like Bharat Ratna Ustad Bismillah Khan and dhrupad singers like the Malliks (Darbhanga Gharana) and the Mishras (Bettiah Gharana) along with poets like Vidyapati Thakur who contributed to Maithili Music.

Visual arts

Painting in Bihar
 
 
 
 
Top  : (L) Mithila Painting, (R) Patna Qualam Bottom  : (L) Tikuli Painting, (R) Bihari Paintings

Paintings

Main article: Painting in Bihar
See also: Mithila painting, Tikuli Painting, Patna Qualam, and Manjusha Painting

There are several traditional styles of painting practised in Bihar. One is Mithila painting, a style of Indian painting used in the Mithila region of Bihar.Traditionally, painting was one of the skills that was passed down from generation to generation in the families of the Mithila region, mainly by women. Painting was usually done on walls during festivals, religious events, and other milestones of the life cycle, like birth, Upanayanam (the sacred thread ceremony), and marriage.[17] Mithila painting was traditionally done on huts' freshly plastered mud walls, but today it is also done on cloth, handmade paper, and canvas. Famous Mithila painters have included Smt Bharti Dayal, Mahasundari Devi, the late Ganga Devi, and Sita Devi. Mithila painting is also called Madhubani art. It mostly depicts human beings and their association with nature. Common scenes illustrate deities like Krishna, Ram, Shiva, Durga, Lakshmi, and Saraswati from ancient epics. Natural objects like the sun, moon, and religious plants like tulsi are also widely painted, along with scenes from the royal court and social events like weddings. Generally no space is left empty.[17]

Historically, the Patna School of Painting (Patna Qualam), sometimes called Company Painting, flourished in Bihar during the early 18th to mid-20th centuries. The Patna School of Painting was an offshoot of the well-known Mughal Miniature School of Painting. Those who practised this art form were descendants of Hindu artisans of Mughal painting. Facing persecution from the Mughal Emperor, Aurangzeb, these artisans found refuge, via Murshidabad, in Patna during the late 18th century. Their art shared the characteristics of the Mughal painters, but whereas the Mughal style depicted only royalty and court scenes, the Patna artists also started painting bazaar scenes. They used watercolours on paper and on mica. The style's subject matter evolved to include scenes of Indian daily life, local rulers, festivals, and ceremonies. This school of painting formed the basis for the formation of the Patna Art School under the leadership of Shri Radha Mohan. The School is an important center of fine arts in Bihar.[citation needed]

Sculpture in Bihar
 
 
Top  : (L) Famous Didarganj Yakshi, (R) Modern Sculpture in Bihar Museum

Sculpture

Main article: Sculpture of Bihar
Further information: Didarganj Yakshi, Mauryan polish, and Mauryan art

The first sculptures in Bihar date back to the Mauryan Empire. The Pillars of Ashoka, Masarh lion and Didarganj Yakshi are estimated to be at least 2000 years old, and were carved out of a single piece of stone.[18] Ancient statues are found throughout Bihar. Some of these sculptures were made from bronze, an advanced technique at that time. For example, the Sultanganj Buddha statue, estimated to be 1500 years old, is about seven feet tall and made of 500 kg of bronze, making it the largest statue of that period. Many statues, ranging from Hellenistic gods to various Gandharan lay devotees, are combined with what are thought to be early representations of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas.

Today, it is still unclear exactly when the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara emerged. However, evidence from Sirkap indicates that this style of art was already highly developed before the advent of the Kushans. Mandar Hill features the unique image of Lord Vishnu, from the Gupta period, in his man-lion incarnation. The image is 34 inches high and made of black stone.[19]

Architecture

Further information: Hindu temple architecture, Buddhist architecture, Mughal architecture, Indo-Islamic architecture, and Indo-Saracenic
Architecture of Bihar
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Lomas Rishi Cave, Son Bhandar Caves Golghar, Sabhyata Dwar, Shergarh Fort, Darbhanga Fort, Great Buddha, Vasupujya Statue, Sher Shah Suri Tomb

The first significant architectural pieces in Bihar date back to the Vedic period. While the Mauryan period marked a transition to the use of brick and stone, wood remained the material of choice. Contemporary writers, like Chanakya in the Arthashastra, advised the use of brick and stone for their durability. However, in his writings, Megasthenes described a wooden palisade encircling the capital city of Pataliputra. Evidence of ancient structures have been found in recent excavations in Kumrahar, in modern-day Patna. Remains of an 80-pillared hall have also been unearthed.

The Buddhist stupa, a dome-shaped monument, was used in India as a commemorative monument used to enshrine sacred relics.[20] The stupa architecture was adopted in Southeast and East Asia, where it became prominent.[20] Many stupas, like those at Nalanda and Vikramshila, were originally built as brick and masonry mounds during the reign of Ashoka (273 BCE - 232 BCE). Fortified cities with stūpas, viharas, and temples were constructed during the Maurya empire (c. 321–185 BCE). Wooden architecture remained popular, while rock-cut architecture became solidified. Guard rails—consisting of posts, crossbars, and a coping—became a safety feature surrounding a stupa. Upon its discovery by Westerners, the stupa became known as pagoda in the West.[20]

Temples—build on elliptical, circular, quadrilateral, or apsidal plans—were constructed using brick and timber. The Indian gateway arches, the torana, reached East Asia with the spread of Buddhism.[21] Some scholars hold that torii derives from the torana gates at the Buddhist historic site of Sanchi (3rd century BCE – 11th century CE).[22]

Important features of the architecture during this period included walled and moated cities with large gates and multi-storied buildings, which consistently used arched windows and doors. The Indian emperor Ashoka, who ruled from 273 BCE to 232 BCE, established a chain of hospitals throughout the Mauryan empire by 230 BCE.[23] One of the edicts of Ashoka reads: "Everywhere King Piyadasi (Ashoka) erected two kinds of hospitals, hospitals for people and hospitals for animals. Where there were no healing herbs for people and animals, he ordered that they be bought and planted."[24]

Buddhist architecture blended with Roman and Hellenestic architecture to give rise to unique new styles, such as the Greco-Buddhist style.[25]

Rock-cut stepwells in India date from 200–400 CE.[26] Subsequently, the wells at Dhank (550–625 CE) and the stepped ponds at Bhinmal (850–950 CE) were constructed.[26]

Bihar was largely in ruins when visited by Xuanzang, and suffered further damage at the hands of Mughal raiders in the 12th century.[27] Though parts of the Bihar have been excavated, much of its ancient architecture still lies buried beneath the modern city.

Persian influence can be seen in surviving Mughal tombs made of sandstone and marble.[28] Surviving Mughal architecture includes Sher Shah Suri Tomb, built by Sher Shah Suri and his successor. Ibrahim Khan, Governor of Bihar and a disciple of Makhdum Daulat, oversaw the completion of Makhdum Daulat mausoleum in 1616.[29] Another example of Mughal architecture is the building at Maner Sharif. The domed building features walls adorned with intricate designs and a ceiling full of inscriptions from the Quran.

Patna High Court, Bihar Vidhan Sabha, Bihar Vidhan Parishad, Transport Bhawan, Patna, Golghar St. Mary's Church and Patna Museum are some example of Indo-Saracenic Architectures.

Strips or cane reeds painted in vivid colours are commonly found in Bihari homes. A special container called a "pauti," woven out of Sikki Grass Craft in the north, is a sentimental gift that accompanies a bride when she leaves her home after her wedding. Bihar is well known for the games played there, for example - kabaddi.

Bhagalpur is well known for its sericulture, manufacture of silk yarn, and silk-weaving. Silk produced here is called tussah or tussar silk. Appliqué works in Bihar are known as Khatwa.

Cuisine

Traditional Bihari cuisine
 
 
 
 
Litti, Kadhi bari, Ghugni, Khichdi
Main article: Bihari cuisine

Bihari cuisine is eaten mainly in the eastern Indian state of Bihar, as well as in the places where people originating from the state of Bihar have settled: Jharkhand, Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bangladesh, Nepal, Mauritius, South Africa, Fiji, some cities of Pakistan, Guyana, Trinidad and Tobago, Suriname, Jamaica, and the Caribbean. Bihari cuisine includes Bhojpuri cuisine,[30] Maithil cuisine and Magahi cuisine.

The cuisine of Bihar is largely similar to North indian cuisine and East Indian cuisines (for example Bengali cuisine). It is highly seasonal; watery foods such as watermelon and sharbat made from the pulp of the wood-apple fruit are consumed mainly in the summer months, while dry foods such as preparations made of sesame seeds and poppy seeds are consumed more frequently in the winter months.

There are numerous Bihari meat dishes, with chicken and mutton being the most common. Fish dishes are especially common in the Mithila region of North Bihar due to the number of rivers, such as the Sone, Gandak, Ganges and Koshi. Dairy products are consumed frequently throughout the year, including dahi (yogurt), spiced buttermilk (known as mattha), ghee, lassi and butter.

Dishes for which Bihar is famous include Litti (cuisine), Chokha , Kadhi bari, Ghugni, Khichdi, Bihari kebabs, Champaran meat, Machhak jhor (fish curry), Makhana. Famous native sweets includes halwa of posta-dana and Makhana, Khaja, Tilkut and Anarasa

Religion

Dharmic religion pilgrimages in Bihar
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Vishnupad Temple, Gaya, Deo Surya Mandir, Mundeshwari Temple, Jal Mandir a Jain temple, Vietnam Temple, Bodh Gaya, Takht Sri Patna Sahib , Mahavir Mandir
Main article: Religion in Bihar
See also: Sikhism in Bihar, Christianity in Bihar, Islam in Bihar, Jainism in Bihar, and Buddhism in Bihar
Religion in Bihar
Religion Percent
Hinduism
 
 82.7%
Islam
 
 16.9%
Other
 
 0.4%

Hindu Goddess Sita, the consort of Lord Rama, is believed to have been born in Sitamarhi district in the Mithila region of modern-day Bihar.[31][32] It was the Ancient Bihar that give birth to new Indic religions: Buddhism and Jainism. Gautama Buddha attained Enlightenment at Bodh Gaya, a town located in the modern day district of Gaya in Bihar. Vasupujya, the 12th Jain Tirthankara was born in Champapuri, Bhagalpur. Vardhamana Mahavira, the 24th and last Tirthankara of Jainism, was born in Vaishali around the 6th century BC.[33] Bodh Gaya in Bihar is an important pilgrimage center for the global Buddhists. The tenth Guru of the Sikhs, Guru Gobind Singh, was born here in 1666 and spent his early years here before moving to Anandpur.[34] The Gurdwara at Patna Sahib marks the birthplace of Guru Gobind Singh.[34]

Festivals

Main article: Festival of Bihar
See also: Chhath, Durga Puja, and Saraswati puja

Chhath Mahaparv

Main article: Chhath
 
Chhath Puja

Chhath, also called "Dala Chhath", Surya vrat, is an ancient and major Vedic festival celebrated in Bihar. It is celebrated twice a year: once in the summers, called the Chaiti Chhath, and once around a week after Deepawali, called the Karthik Chhath. The Karthik Chhath is more popular because winters are the usual festive season in northern India, and fasting without water for around 42 hours or more, as required for worshipers during Chhath Puja, is easier to do in the Indian winters.

Chhath is the worship of the sun god. Wherever people from Bihar have migrated, they have taken with them the tradition of Chhath. It is a ritual bathing festival that follows a period of abstinence and a ritual segregation of the worshiper from their main household for four days. On the eve of Chhath, houses and their surroundings are scrupulously cleaned. Then the ritual bathing and worship of the Sun God takes place, performed twice: once in the evening and once at dawn, usually on the banks of a flowing river, or a common large water body. The main god worshiped is Aditya the sun god with his wife Ushas the evening dusk goddess and Kiran the dawn goddess and Aditi the mother of Gods, the occasion generally resembles a carnival. For several days, ritual renditions of regional folk songs are sung. These folk songs have been carried on through oral transmission from mothers and mothers-in-law to daughters and daughters-in-law for generations. It is one of the oldest festival continuously celebrated since the time of vedic period. It is believed that it generally follows the Vedic worship of sungod which is preserved in these region till now and it is celebrated at huge expanse.

Durga Puja

 
Durga Puja

After Chhath puja, Durga puja is the second major festival of Bihar. Here, it is celebrated for ten days. People perform fasts during festival and married women perform 'saanjh' which means sandhya aarti and "khoecha" is given to goddess by women because it is a tradition in Bihar that when a daughter comes to her father's house 'khoecha' is given to her by her mother and it is believed that goddess Durga comes to her maayka from her sasural every year. Whole cities and villages are decorated with beautiful lights and beautiful pandals are created for this grand festival. Here people performs puja for ten days and strictly performs the fast and during these ten days pure vegetarian dishes are cooked in households. These dishes do not contain onion and garlic. During this festival people perform kanya pujan on the auspicious day of Ashtami and Navami. In Dashami the 'Visarjan puja' is performed in which 'jayanti from 'Kalash' is distributed to devotees and 'Aprajita pujan' is performed in which Goddess is worshiped with from the vines of a flower named 'Aprajita' after this 'Dahi chura' is offered to Goddess Durga after which she returns to her Husband's home 'Sasural'.The idols of goddess Durga are immersed on Dashmi or Day after Dashmi. The visarjan of 'Bari Devi ji' and 'Choti Devi ji'in Patna and visarjan of 'Bari Durga Maharani ji ' Choti Durga ji, Bari Kali ji, and Choti Kali ji in Munger and Jamalpur holds a grand procession.

Saraswati Puja

 
Saraswati Puja

It is the one of the major festivals in Bihar which is performed by students and also in many households. Students start preparations for this festival around one month early. It is mainly performed in school and colleges. Now-a-days, Saraswati puja is also performed in households and localities. In this festival, students offer their books and study materials as well as musical instruments in front of goddess saraswati who is believed to be the goddess of knowledge and wisdom.

Other festivals

Other local festivals celebrated with fervor in Bihar include:

Fair

Main article: Fair of Bihar

Pitri Paksha Mela

Main article: Pitru Paksha

This is a 15-day fair held on the bank of River Falgu at Gaya during Pitru Paksha every year. Pilgrims from all parts of India visit Gaya, offering pinda to honour their ancestors. According to estimates from the Bihar Tourism Department, about 500,000 to 750,000 pilgrims arrive in Gaya each year during the Pitri Paksha Mela.[35]

Sonepur Mela

Main article: Sonepur Cattle Fair
  • The Sonepur cattle fair, a month-long event starting approximately half a month after Deepawali. Considered the largest cattle fair in Asia, it is held at the junction of the Ganges and Gandak Rivers, in the town of Sonepur. However, new laws governing the sale of animals and prohibiting the trafficking in exotic birds and beasts have adversely impacted the fair's success.
  • Sama Chakeva

Shravani Mela

Shravani Mela is an important month-long ritual observance, held along a 108-kilometre route linking the towns of Sultanganj and Deoghar (now located in the state of Jharkhand.) It is held every year in the Hindu month of Shravan (the lunar month of July–August). Pilgrims, known as Kanwarias, wear saffron-coloured clothes and collect water from a sacred Ghat (river bank) at Sultanganj. They walk the 108 km stretch barefoot to the town of Deoghar to bathe a sacred Shiva-Linga. The observance draws thousands of people from all over India to the town of Deoghar.

Media

Main article: Media in Bihar

Print

Popular Hindi newspapers in Bihar include the Hindustan Times, Dainik Jagran, Navbharat Times, Aj The Hindu and Prabhat Khabar. E-papers, such as the Bihar Times and Patna Daily, have become very popular among educated Biharis, especially those living outside the region. National English dailies like The Times of India and The Economic Times and Bihar Now are read in urban regions.

Electronic

Several national and international television channels are popular in Bihar. DD Bihar, Sahara Bihar, and ETV Bihar-Jharkhand are the channels dedicated specifically to Bihar. In 2008, two dedicated Bhojpuri channels, called Mahuaa TV,[36][37] and Purva TV[38] were launched.

Several government radio channels exist in Bihar. All India Radio has stations in Bhagalpur, Daltonganj, Darbhanga, Patna, Purnea, and Sasaram. Other government radio channels include Gyan Vani in Patna; Radio Mirchi, also in Patna; and Radio Dhamaal in Muzaffarpur.[39]

Cinema

Main articles: Cinema of Bihar, Bhojpuri Film Industry, and Maithili Film Industry
See also: Bodhisattava International Film Festival and Patna Film Festival
See also: International Bhojpuri Film Awards, Bhojpuri Film Awards, and Sabrang Film Awards
Further information: List of Bhojpuri films, Category:Maithili-language films, and Category:Magahi-language films

Bihar has a robust Bhojpuri-language cinema industry. There are also a small Maithili-, Angika- and Magadhi-language film industries in the region.

The earliest Bihari films were released in the 1960s. The first Bhojpuri film was Ganga Jamuna, released in 1961.[40] The same year also saw the release of the first Magadhi-language film, called Bhaiyaa.[41] In 1962, a well-received Bhojpuri film, Ganga Maiyya Tohe Piyari Chadhaibo ("Mother Ganges, I will offer you a yellow sari"), was released, directed by Kundan Kumar.[42] Three years later, the first movie filmed in significant portions in the Maithili language, Kanyadan, was released.[43]

Over the next two decades, films were produced sporadically. In general, Bhojpuri films were not commonly made in the 1960s and 1970s. By the 1980s, though, enough Bhojpuri films had been made to comprise a small industry. Films such as Mai ("Mom," 1989, directed by Rajkumar Sharma) and Hamar Bhauji ("My Brother's Wife," 1983, directed by Kalpataru) continued to have at least sporadic success at the box office. However, this trend faded out by the end of the decade, and by 1990, the Bihari film industry seemed to be defunct.[44]

Yet the industry took off again in 2001 with the extremely popular Saiyyan Hamar ("My Sweetheart," directed by Mohan Prasad).[45] This success was quickly followed by several other very popular films, including Panditji Batai Na Biyah Kab Hoi ("Priest, tell me when I will marry," 2005, directed by Mohan Prasad) and Sasura Bada Paisa Wala ("My father-in-law, the rich guy," 2005). In a measure of the Bhojpuri film industry's rising status, both of these films did much better business in the states of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar than mainstream Bollywood hits did. Additionally, both films, made on extremely small budgets, earned back more than ten times their production costs.[46] The success, status, and visibility of Bhojpuri cinema has continued to increase. The industry now supports an awards show[47] and a trade magazine, Bhojpuri City,[48] and now produces over one hundred films per year. Many of the major stars of mainstream Bollywood cinema, including Amitabh Bachchan, have recently worked in Bhojpuri films.

 
Hindus bathing in the hotsprings at Lakshmi Narayan Mandir, Rajgir. In ancient times, hot springs used to be the site of the Tapodarama, a Buddhist monastery at the time of Gautama Buddha. It is said that King Bimbisara also used to bathe here sometimes.

References and footnotes

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  2. ^ History of Indian languages Archived 26 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine, "Bihari is actually the name of a group of three related languages—Bhojpuri, Maithili, and Magahi—spoken mainly in northeastern India in Bihar.
  3. ^ Verma, Mahandra K (2001). "Language Endangerment and Indian languages: An exploration and a critique". Linguistic Structure and Language Dynamics in South Asia. ISBN 9788120817654.
  4. ^ Brass Paul R., The Politics of India Since Independence, Cambridge University Press, pp. 183
  5. ^ DR.Shamim Hashimi Archived 2 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Urdu Literature (14 August 1947). Retrieved on 18 July 2013.
  6. ^ Professor Dr. Syed Abdul Wahab Ashrafi, Sahitya Academy Award winner, brought to you by Bihar Anjuman, the largest online group from Bihar or Jharkhand Archived 28 September 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Biharanjuman.org (2 June 1936). Retrieved on 18 July 2013.
  7. ^ "On the write track from Maoist land". Deccan Herald. Archived from the original on 29 November 2014.
  8. ^ "Youth from Red zone pens words worth praise - 11 novels in less than 2 years". The Telegraph. Calcutta. Archived from the original on 7 April 2014.
  9. ^ Bajeli, Diwan Singh (22 January 2015). "Tender and tragic". The Hindu. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 16 May 2021.
  10. ^ ""Bidesia" - The Folk Theatre of Eastern India". The Theatre Times. 25 April 2017. Retrieved 16 May 2021.
  11. ^ "Mithila's submerged in Sama-Chakeva celebrations". 22 November 2012.
  12. ^ Punam Kumari (1999). Social and cultural life of the Nepalese. Mohit Publications. ISBN 978-81-7445-092-0. Retrieved 16 August 2013.
  13. ^ "Domkach". Folklibrary.com. Retrieved 18 December 2018.
  14. ^ "Bidesia - Folk Dance Drama From Bihar". 26 August 2020.
  15. ^ "6 traditional folk dances from Bihar, India". Mythical India. 20 February 2016. Retrieved 16 May 2021.
  16. ^ "Folk dances of Bihar - Bihargatha". www.bihargatha.in. Retrieved 16 May 2021.
  17. ^ a b Carolyn Brown Heinz, 2006, "Documenting the Image in Mithila Art", Visual Anthropology Review, Vol. 22, Issue 2, pp. 5-33
  18. ^ Didarganj Yakshi [https://web.archive.org/web/20080509164922/http://www.thebharat.com/tourism/museum/patna.html Archived 9 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine at Patna Museum]
  19. ^ "Temples And Legends of Bihar - Mandar Hill ( Page 9)". Archived from the original on 16 October 2014. Retrieved 10 October 2014.
  20. ^ a b c Encyclopædia Britannica (2008). Pagoda.
  21. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica (2008). Torii
  22. ^ "Japanese Architecture and Art Net Users System (2001). torii". Archived from the original on 20 October 2014. Retrieved 10 October 2014.
  23. ^ Piercey & Scarborough (2008)
  24. ^ Finger, Stanley (2001). Origins of Neuroscience: A History of Explorations into Brain Function. US: Oxford University Press. 12. ISBN 0-19-514694-8.
  25. ^ Moffett, M.; Fazio, M.; and Lawrence Wodehouse (2003). A World History of Architecture. McGraw-Hill Professional. 75. ISBN 0-07-141751-6.
  26. ^ a b Livingston & Beach, page xxiii
  27. ^ Scott, David (May 1995). "Buddhism and Islam: Past to Present Encounters and Interfaith Lessons". Numen. 42 (2): 141–155. doi:10.1163/1568527952598657. JSTOR 3270172.
  28. ^ Mughal architecture. Encyclopædia Britannica (2008)
  29. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 10 December 2008. Retrieved 29 November 2008.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  30. ^ Neha Bhatt (9 March 2018). "Beyond 'litti chokha'". LiveMint.com.
  31. ^ "Sitamarhi". Britannica. Archived from the original on 27 April 2015. Retrieved 30 January 2015.
  32. ^ "History of Sitamarhi". Official site of Sitamarhi district. Archived from the original on 20 December 2014. Retrieved 30 January 2015.
  33. ^ Pathak Prabhu Nath,Society and Culture in Early Bihar, Commonwealth Publishers, 1988, p. 140
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Further reading

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