User:Cerejota/List of Puerto Rican scientists and inventors-newversion

Puerto Rican scientists and inventors
69px First row Orlando Figueroa • Amri Hernandez-Pellerano • Sixto Gonzalez Second row Fermín Tangüis • Carlos Albizu Miranda • Miriam Rodon-Naveira Location of the island of Puerto Rico (green)

The discoveries and contributions which have been made by Puerto Rican scientists and inventors in their respective fields have affected the lives of the inhabitants of Puerto Rico, and in many cases society in general.

Before Christopher Columbus and the Spanish Conquistadors landed on the island of "Borikén" (Puerto Rico), the Tainos who inhabited the island depended on their astronomical observations for the cultivation of their crops.

Juan Ponce de Leon II.

In 1581, Juan Ponce de León II, the grandson of the Conquistador Juan Ponce de Leon, studied an eclipse and its effects on the island and was able to establish the exact geographical coordinates of San Juan with his observations.

During the 19th century the economies of many countries in the world suffered from the spread of crop failures. Puerto Rico, whose economy depended heavily on its agriculture, felt the effects of some of the crop diseases. Scientists such as Dr. Agustín Stahl, Fermín Tangüis and Fernando López Tuero conducted investigations and experiments in the fields of agriculture, botany,ethnologyand zoology. The findings of their investigations helped Puerto Rico's agricultural industry.

With the advances in medical technologies and the coming of the Space Age of the 20th century, Puerto Ricans have expanded their horizons and have made many contributions in various scientific fields, among them the fields of aerospace and medicine.

There are many Puerto Rican scientists involved in the American space program at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). According to an article written by Margarita Santori Lopez for the official newspaper of the University of Puerto Rico's Mayagüez Campus, "Prensa RUM", as of 2003, of the 114 Hispanics working at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Maryland, 70 were Puerto Ricans or of Puerto Rican descent. According to a research conducted during the period of 1990 to 1998 by Puerto Rican scientists in science and technology, Puerto Rican scientific production was greater than in any other Caribbean country and the sixth largest in all of Latin America.

The following is a list of some of Puerto Rico's notable scientists and inventors with short profiles that include the scientific contributions, inventions and achievements in their respective fields.

Contents: Top - Pre-Columbian era, Aerospace, Agriculture,Archaeology,Astronomy, Astrophysics, Biochemistry, Botany, Ecology,Engineering,Hydrometeorology, Marine biology, Medicine, Microbiology, Mycology,Psychology,Physiologist, Rocket scientist, Space exploration, Space physics, Zoology,Inventors

Pre-Columbian era

View of the Tibes Indigenous Ceremonial Center

According to Archeologist Osvaldo García Goyco, the Tainos who inhabited the Tibes area located near in what is now the city of Ponce, Puerto Rico, needed to know the seasons by observing the stars and their movements in order to properly cultivate the crops on which their survival depended. García Goyco stated that "there is evidence that some of the plazas are orientated in relation to the equinox and solstice of the four seasons of the year"... "this makes the Tibes Indigenous Ceremonial Center the oldest astronomical observatory in the Antilles"

Aerospace

Aerospace comprises the atmosphere of Earth and surrounding space. Typically the term is used to refer to the industry that researches, designs, manufactures, operates, and maintains vehicles moving through air and space. Aerospace is a very diverse field, with a multitude of commercial, industrial and military applications.The following is a list of Puerto Ricans and their contributions in the field.

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Dr. Roberto Alemán is an electronics engineer and Aero-Space Technologist at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center in Maryland. As Environmental Instruments Director he directs everything that is related to the environmental instruments which the United States provides to the European Space Agency in order to operate the MetOp, a European satellite that provides environmental information to both Europe and the United States.

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Adán Rodríguez-Arroyo is an electronics engineer and Aero-Space Technologist at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center in Maryland. Rodríguez-Arroyo is the Communications System Lead Engineer for the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) Mission, to be launched in 2008. He was in charge of the design of the communications systems of the "Global Precipitation Measurement" satellite.

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Anthony M. Busquets is an electronics engineer and Aero-Space Technologist at NASA Langley Research Center in Hampton, Virginia. He is involved in the development and application of multifunction control/display switch technology in 1983 and Development and application of a microprocessor-based I/O system for simulator use in 1984.

He is the author and or co-author of over 13 conference papers and NASA formal publications in the areas of cockpit controls and displays, use of stereoscopy in flight displays and pictorial flight displays for situation awareness enhancement.

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Dr. Juan R. Cruz is an aerospace engineer and Aero Space Technologist at NASA Langley Research Center in Hampton, Virginia who helped design and qualification of the supersonic parachute for the Mars Exploration Rover (MER) project.

Dr. Cruz is a senior aerospace engineer in the Exploration Systems Engineering Branch at the NASA Langley Research Center. His responsibilities are focused on research and development of entry, descent, and landing (EDL) systems for robotic and human exploration missions. He was a member of the highly successful Mars Exploration Rover (MER) project that placed two rovers on the surface of Mars in 2004. His contributions to the MER project were centered on the design and qualification of the supersonic parachute.

Dr. Cruz is also a member of the Phoenix (Mars 2007), Mars Science Laboratory (Mars 2009), and Crew Exploration Vehicle EDL teams. He has undertaken research on advanced missions to Mars, including robotic airplanes, as well as having been a technical reviewer for the Genesis, Huygens, and Stardust missions. Prior to his involvement with exploration programs he conducted research on high-altitude unmanned aircraft.

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Dr. Orlando Figueroa is a mechanical engineer, Aero-Space Technologist and the former Director of Solar System Exploration Division and Mars Exploration at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. Dr. Figueroa headed the cryogenic technology section, played a key role on the Cosmic Background Explorer mission, and managed a Space Shuttle Helium on Orbit Mission. He is the manager for the Small Explorers (SMEX) project, manager for the Explorers Program, and Director of Systems Technology and Advanced Concept Directorate. ::He is currently the Director, Applied Engineering & Technology at the NASA, Goddard Space Flight Center (as the "Director of Engineering" he manages the full scope of engineering activities at Goddard).

Olga D. Gonzalez-Sanabria

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Olga D. González-Sanabria is a scientist and inventor. She is the highest ranking Hispanic at NASA Glenn Research Center, and a member of the Ohio Women's Hall of Fame. As Director of the Engineering and Technical Services, she is responsible for planning and directing a full range of integrated services including engineering, fabrication, testing, facility management and aircraft services for the Glenn Research Center. She played an instrumental role in the development of the "Long Cycle-Life Nickel-Hydrogen Batteries" which helps enable the International Space Station power system.

Among the technical reports which she has authored and or co-authored are:
1. Effect of NASA advanced designs on thermal behavior of Ni-H2 cells (1987)
2. Component variations and their effects on bipolar nickel-hydrogen cell performance (1987)
3. NASA Aerospace Flight Battery Systems Program - Issues and actions (1988)
4. Effect of NASA advanced designs on thermal behavior of Ni-H2 cells 2 (1988)
5. Energy storage considerations for a robotic Mars surface sampler (1989)

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Amri Hernandez-Pellerano is an electronics engineer and scientist who designs, builds and tests the electronics that will regulate the solar array power in order to charge the spacecraft battery and distribute power to the different loads or users inside various spacecraft at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center. She designed the power systems electronics for the WMAP mission. WMAP is a NASA Explorer mission satellite which measures the temperature of the cosmic background radiation over the full sky with unprecedented accuracy.

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María C. Lecha is an electronics engineer and Aero-Space Technologist at NASA Goddard Space Center in charge of a group of engineers who are in the process of developing the "Solar Dynamic Observatory" which will be launched into outer space in 2008.

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Carlos Ortiz Longo

Dr. Carlos Ortiz Longo is the Constellation Program Division System Manager for the Structural Engineering Division at the Johnson Space Center in Houston. Dr. Ortiz Longo is responsible for integrating Constellation Program items related to structures, mechanics, materials, and thermal. Formerly the manager of the Crew Health Care System and Exercise Countermeasures for NASA's Johnson Space Center. He began his career at NASA working on the Space Shuttle thermal protection system or TPS (the tiles) before transitioning into the ISS program, and was a semi-finalist astronaut candidate on the group 16 selection.

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Mercedes Reaves is a research engineer and scientist. She is responsible for the design of a viable full-scale solar sail and the development and testing of a scale model solar sail at NASA Langley Research Center. She must select and apply tools to analyze complex thin film structures characterized by wrinkling, geometric and material nonlinear behavior. She is also responsible for planning experimental studies to validate analytical techniques and study solar sails dynamics.

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Dr. Miriam Rodon-Naveira, the daughter of Puerto Rico's first female Chief Justice, Miriam Naveira (formerly "de Rodón"), is a scientist and the first Hispanic woman to hold the Deputy Directorship for the Environmental Sciences Division within the National Exposure Research Laboratory. She is responsible for developing, coordinating and maintaining research and educational activities in support of NASA's Dryden Flight Research Center mission. She holds a doctorate in Biology–Aquatic Microbial Ecology.

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Otilia I. Rodriguez-Alvarez is an electrical engineer, Aero-Space Technologist and Solar B Mission Manager/Geospace Instrument Systems Manager at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. Ms. Rodriguez-Alvarez began her career with NASA in 1986 at the Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland, where she served as a test engineer with the Space Simulation Test Engineering Section. She then transferred to the Guidance, Navigation, and Control Branch, where she worked on solar array and antenna systems for the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) and the X-Ray Timing Explorer (XTE). She later became the lead engineer for the Sensors and Actuators Team on the Microwave Anisotropy Probe (MAP). After leaving the Engineering Directorate, she became the Instrument Manager for the Advance Baseline Imager for the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) Program. Currently she is the Solar B Mission Manager and the Geospace Instrument Systems Manager in the Sun Earth Connection Office.

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Pedro Rodriguez

Dr. Pedro Rodriguez (son of the late Pellin Rodríguez) is a scientist, inventor, mechanical engineer, Aero-Space Technologist and the Director of a test laboratory at NASA. He invented a portable, battery-operated lift seat for people suffering from knee arthritis.

Dr. Rodriguez was the leader of the Solid Rocket Booster accident investigation team following the Space Shuttle Columbia accident in February 2003 and was also the project manager for the Space Launch Initiative program. Rodriguez is currently the Director of the test laboratory in the Engineering Directorate at NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center. He is responsible for the engineering services and facilities for environmental, structural, and propulsion testing of NASA programs assigned to the Marshall Space Flight Center. Among his duties are: research, development, qualification, and acceptance testing of critical space and flight hardware, as well as the testing of relevant development hardware.

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Carlos A. Gómez Rosa is an electronics engineer and project director of the EDOS Project at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. As director of NASA's Earth Observing System Data and Operations System Project, also known by its initials as "EDOS", Gómez Rosa's responsibilities include receiving, processing and distributing the data obtained from five satellites whose function is to study the Earth. Those satellites are "EO-1", "Terra", "Aqua", "ICESat" and "Aura".

EDOS has installations in Norway, Alaska, Wallops Island, Virginia and New Mexico that collect the telemetry from the different the spacecrafts. The data is transmitted and received at the Goddard Space Center where under the direction of Gomez Rosa, it is processed and sent to various data centers and scientific groups in the United States, Japan, England, and Holland.

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File:Felix Soto Toro.JPG

Felix Soto Toro

Dr. Felix Soto Toro is a scientist, astronaut applicant and an electrical designs engineer in NASA, who developed the Advanced Payload Transfer Measurement System (ASPTMS)(Electronic 3D measuring system).

At the Kennedy Space Center, Dr. Soto reviews, designs, builds, tests and implements engineering designs used in the Space Shuttle and Payload Operations Development Laboratories. The main project he developed was the Advanced Payload Transfer Measurement System (ASPTMS)(Electronic 3D measuring system), which consists of a simplified, robust, centrally operated and portable system that automatically measures the spherical coordinates offset between the trunnion and their supports during transfer operations. This system has the potential to become a NASA project with commercial applications. Dr. Soto earned his Doctorate of Philosophy Degree in Electrical Engineering and has applied to become an astronaut candidate.

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Juan A. Román Velázquez is a mechanical engineer, Aero-Space Technologist and Space projects formulation Manager at NASA Goddard Space Center. Román Velázquez is in charge of a group of scientists and engineers who are the developers of the advanced concepts used in the Space missions and whose technologies are to be used in telescopes andinterferometrymissions.

Aerospace physiology

Aerospace physiology refers to effects on the human body caused by characteristics of the aerospace environment.

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Dr. Edwin Muñiz M.D., Ph.D. and Ed.D., was the first person of Hispanic heritage to be named Aerospace Physiologist in theUnited States Air Force and NASA.

Dr. Muñiz, flew the back seat of an F-16 A-1 conducting cardiovascular research on the fighter pilots. He became an official trainer in NASA in capacity of Aerospace Physiologist. As an Aerospace Physiologist for NASA, his responsibilities included training pilots and astronaut candidates on the hazards of air and space flight. His activities under this capacity included doing research in the cardiovascular field studying the effects of gravity and Speed & Acceleration on the pilots cardiovascular system. He was certified as an Aircraft Accident Investigator and Human Factors Specialist by the School of Systems Management at the University of Southern California, Los Angeles thus becoming the first Hispanic Aerospace Physiologist in the United States Air Force.

Agriculture

In the 19th Century, Puerto Rico's economy depended on its agricultural industry. Among the products which Puerto Rico exported were tobacco, cotton, ginger, pineapples and citrus fruits. The two main agricultural products whose production dominated the island's economy were sugar and coffee.

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• Coffee industry

The Mariani family of Yauco created a machine out of a cotton gin in the 1860s, which was used in the dehusking of coffee. This represented a significant improvement in Puerto Rico's coffee appearance and an opportunity to stand out in the international coffee market.

• Cotton industry

Fermín Tangüis

Fermín Tangüis (1851–1930) was a Puerto Rican businessman, agriculturist and scientist who in 1901 developed the seed that would eventually produce the Tanguis cotton in Peru when that nation's cotton industry suffered because of a fungus plague caused by a plant disease known some places as "cotton wilt" and in others as "Fusarium wilt" (Fusarium vasinfectum) saving that nation's cotton industry.

Tangüis began to study some species of the plant that were affected by the disease to a lesser extent and experimented in germination with the seeds of various cotton plants. In 1911, after 10 years of experimenting and failures, Tangüis was able to develop a seed which produced a superior cotton plant resistant to the disease. The seeds produced a plant that had a 40% longer (between 29 mm and 33 mm) and thicker fiber that did not break easily and required little water. The cotton grown in Peru (Egyptian cotton) before the fungus plague grew only once a year; the Tangüis cotton grows six times a year. This type of fiber showed a better resistance and performance than other fibers.

Tangüis cotton grows in Canete's valley (south of Lima) and in the Central Coast of Peru. The success of the Tangüis cotton, which is also known in Peru as "Oro Blanco" (White Gold), saved the cotton industry of that nation.

• Coconut industry

Ramón López Irizarry (1897–1982) was an educator and scientist who invented an easier way to extract the cream from the coconut pulp. He was a professor of agricultural sciences at theUniversity of Puerto Rico in the late 1940s when the Government of Puerto Rico gave a grant to the University of Puerto Rico (Universidad de Puerto Rico) to help assist in the development of Puerto Rican industries.

In 1949, Lopez-Irizarry, with the use of some of these funds, was able to work in his laboratory on an idea that he had. Lopez-Irizarry set out to find an easier way to extract the cream from the coconut pulp. The heart of the coconut has always been an important ingredient in many of the desserts in Puerto Rico. The main problem was extracting the coconut cream from the pulp which was a difficult task. Lopez-Irizarry discovered an easier way by blending the cream from the hearts of the Caribbean coconuts with an exact proportion of natural cane sugar. He used his discovery in the development of "Coco Lopez" a coconut product which is used in many popular drinks.

• Sugar industry

Fernando López Tuero was an agricultural scientist and agronomist who saved the sugar industry of Puerto Rico when he discovered the bug (believed at first to be a germ) which was destroying the island's sugar canes.

In the latter part of the 19th Century, an epidemic was affecting the agricultural industry of Puerto Rico. Among the crops affected was the sugar cane, whose main product "sugar" was vital to Puerto Rico's economy. The Spanish colonial government, created an emergency commission composed of scientists, which included Dr. Agustín Stahl and Fernando López Tuero, to study the situation. Dr. Agustín Stahl concluded that the epidemic was caused by a "germ" in the terrain, however his findings were inconclusive. In 1894, Fernando López Tuero, who was the head agronomist of the Agronomical Station of Río Piedras, discovered that the cause of the epidemic was the white grub (Phyllophaga).

The Phyllophaga is a very large genus (more than 260 species) of New World scarab beetles in the subfamily Melolonthinae. These beetles are nocturnal, coming to lights in great numbers. The adults are chafers, feeding on foliage of trees and shrubs. They may cause significant damage when emerging in large numbers. The larvae (called white grubs) feed on the roots of grasses and other plants.

Archaeology

Archaeology is the science that studies human cultures through the recovery, documentation, analysis, and interpretation of material remains and environmental data, including architecture, artifacts, features, biofacts, and landscapes.

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Dr. Ricardo Alegría is a scholar, cultural anthropologist and archeologist known as the "Father of Modern Puerto Rican Archaeology". He is credited with being a pioneer in theanthropology of the Taino culture and the African heritage in Puerto Rico. His extensive studies have helped historians to understand how the Taínos lived and suffered, before and after the Spanish Conquistadores arrived in the island. Alegría estimated that about one third of all Puerto Ricans (2 million out of 6 million) have Taíno blood and therefore the Taínos were not completely extinct and some had to survive. Recently, the results of recent DNA studies have proved him right.

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Dr. Osvaldo Garcia Goyco is an archaeologist, sociocultural anthropologist, ethnologist and Curator of Achaeological Collections.

Dr. Garcia Goyco has conducted numerous scientific investigations in the Iconography, Cosmology, Mythology, Shamanism and Religion of the Indians of the West Indies (Taino) and the Orinoco and Amazon Basins. He has also investigated the Mesoamerican Religions and Codex Epigraphy (Aztec and Mixteca Puebla Region); the Cultural Ecology of the Circumcaribbean and Orinoco-Amazon Basin and the Archaeology of Circum-Caribbean Indigenous Cultures and Sugarcane Slave Plantations.

Dr. Garcia Goyco is the principal investigator of "Paso del Indio Inc." (Archaeology, Anthropology & Museum Consultants). He is responsible for the administration of a 120 persons field and field laboratory archaeological team which has unearthed more than 140 human remains. The archaeological excavations at Paso del Indio in Vega Baja have been the most extensive up to date in Puerto Rico. Dr. García Goyco coordinated multidisciplinary scientific studies with various educational institutions among them: USDA Forest Service, University of Puerto Rico;University of Colorado; Johns Hopkins University; Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute; US Geological Survey and the US Advisory Council on Historic Preservation.

Astronomy

Astronomy is the scientific study of celestial objects (such as stars, planets, comets, and galaxies) and phenomena that originate outside the Earth's atmosphere (such as the cosmic background radiation). It is concerned with the evolution, physics,chemistry,meteorology, and motion of celestial objects, as well as the formation and development of the universe.

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Dr. Victor Manuel Blanco Ph.D., is an astronomer who in 1959 discovered a Galactic Cluster "Blanco 1" which was named after him. Blanco was the second Director of the Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory inChile, which has the largest 4-m telescope in the Southern Hemisphere, In 1995, the telescope was dedicated in his honor and is known as the Blanco 4m

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Dr. Sixto Gonzalez was the first Puerto Rican to be named Director of the Arecibo Observatory, the world's largest single dish radio telescope. In 2001, Dr. Gonzalez was named assistant director for space and atmospheric sciences at the telescopic facility. On September 29, 2003, Dr. Gonzalez became the first Puerto Rican to be named Director of the observatory. The appointment was made by Robert Brown, director of the National Astronomy and Ionosphere Center (NAIC). Dr. Gonzalez was responsible for the overall management of the facility, including the executions of basic policy that maintains the observatory at the front of research in astronomy, planetary studies and atmospheric science. He stepped down as Director on September 15, 2006, although he continues as assistant director for space and atmospheric sciences.

Astrophysics

Astrophysics is the branch of astronomy that deals with the physics of the universe, including the physical properties (luminosity, density, temperature, andchemical composition) of celestial objects such as stars, galaxies, and the interstellar medium, as well as their interactions.

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Enectali Figueroa

Dr. Enectalí Figueroa-Feliciano is a mechanical engineer, Astronaut applicant and an Assistant Professor of Physics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and the author of various papers including "Position-sensitive low-temperature detectors".

Dr. Figueroa's research interests revolve around the development of high-energy-resolution imaging spectrometers for space-borne applications in experimental astrophysics and cosmology. Dr. Figueroa pioneered the development of position-sensitive detectors that will provide an order of magnitude more pixels (and thus larger field of view) than traditional single-pixel X-ray microcalorimeters." He is an expert and researcher on dark matter. and a researcher with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and a professor of physicsMIT.

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Dr. Adolfo Figueroa-Viñas is the first Puerto Rican astrophysicist at NASA working in solar plasma physics. As a senior research scientist he is involved in many NASA missions such as Wind, SOHO, Cluster and MMS projects in which he is the author and co-author of numerous scientific papers in his field.

Dr. Figueroa-Viñas has served as Guest Co-Investigator of the International Sun Earth Explorer (ISEE-1) mission and the Voyagers program. He is currently a Co-Investigator in the WIND/SWE experiment of the International Solar Terrestrial Program (ISTP) and the Space Physics Theory Program grant entitled The Role of Turbulence in Heliospheric Plasmas. Dr. Viñas has participated in the organizing committee of "La Conferencia Espacial de las Américas" held in Costa Rica, Chile and Uruguay. He is the recipient of the NASA Special Service Award.

Biochemistry

Biochemistry is the study of the chemical processes in living organisms. It deals with the structure and function of cellular components, such asproteins,carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and other biomolecules.

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Nitza Margarita Cintron

Dr. Nitza Margarita Cintron is a scientist who originated the Biochemistry Laboratory at the Johnson Space Center. She is the Chief of Space Medicine and Health Care Systems Office at NASA's Johnson Space Center. In 1979, Dr. Cintron originated the Biochemistry Laboratory at the Johnson Space Center and served from (1979–85) as the project scientist for the Space Lab 2 mission which was launched aboard the Space Shuttle Challenger in 1985. In 2004 she was named "Chief of NASA's (JSC) Space Medicine and Health Care Systems Office", position which she currently holds.

Botany

Botany is a branch of biology and is the scientific study of plant life and development.

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Agustin Stahl

Dr. Agustín Stahl (1842 – 1917), considered as Puerto Rico's first renowned scientist, conducted investigations and experiments in the fields of botany, ethnologyandzoology. Dr. Stahl wrote "Estudios sobre la flora de Puerto Rico" (A study of the Puerto Rican Flora), published in 6 fascicles from 1883-88. Copies of his plant collection with approximately 1,330 plants can be found in various botanical gardens around the world. His collections were the basis for numerous studies by specialists, some of them resulting in new taxato science. He has a genus, Stahlia, and five valid species, Argythamnia stahlii, Senna pendula var. stahlii , Eugenia stahlii, Lyonia stahlii, and Ternstroemia stahlii, named in his honor. The genus Stahlia is represented by a single species, S. monosperma (Tul.) Urb., known to occur only in Puerto Rico and the eastern Dominican Republic. Known in Puerto Rico as Cóbana Negra, this species is currently listed as threatened in the USFW Federal Register, April 5, 1990.

Ecology

Ecology is the scientific study of the distribution and abundance of life and the interactions between organisms and their natural environment. .

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Dr. Ariel Lugo is a scientist, ecologist and Director of the International Institute of Tropical Forestry within the United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service, based in Puerto Rico. He is a founding Member of the Society for Ecological Restoration and Member-at-Large of the Board of the Ecological Society of America.

Dr. Lugo joined the Department of Natural Resources in Puerto Rico as Assistant Secretary for Planning and Resource Analysis in 1974 after carrying out post-doctoral research studies on wet forests in El Verde, Puerto Rico and mangroves in Florida. He has worked on a wide range of tropical and sub-tropical ecosystems: hardwood forests, mangroves, floodplain wetlands, sand pine forests, prairie lakes and palm wetlands. His current research is focused on assessments of the role of tropical forests in global processes and comparisons between tropical tree plantations and natural forests.

Dr. Lugo has over 300 publications in scientific journals and books and has served on federal interagency committees and frequently required to appear as an expert witness in federal court in cases considering environmental issues. He currently serves on the Editorial Boards of Conservation Ecology, Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, Forest Ecology and Management, Restoration Ecology, Journal of Sustainable Forestry, Acta Cientifica (Editor) and Journal of the Littoral.

Engineering

Asdrubal Garcia Ortiz was born in Santurce, Puerto Rico. He received a BS degree in Electrical Engineering (Magna Cum Laude) from the University of Puerto Rico - Mayagüez, and an MS degree in Systems Science and Mathematics from Washington University in St. Louis.

He began his engineering career as a Technology Engineer for McDonnell Douglas Astronautics Co., and is now an Engineering Staff Scientist for DRS - Support Systems Inc. He has been awarded 16 U.S. Patents, is the author of 36 technical publications, and editor of 2 special issues of the international journal Mathematical and Computer Modelling, both on Intelligent Transportation Systems. Together with fellow inventors Sunggyu Lee and John R. Wootton, Garcia Ortiz was granted various patents. A sample of these patents includes: US Patent No 6,177,885, "System and method for detecting traffic anomalies", US Patent No 7,186,345, "Systems for water purification through supercritical oxidation", and US Patent No 7,688,605, "Systems and methods for reducing the magnitude of harmonics produced by a power inverter". His areas of specialty are systems engineering, control systems, embedded systems and electronics. He is a registered Professional Engineer, a Senior Member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE), and a member of the International Council on Systems Engineering (INCOSE).

Hydrometeorology

Hydrometeorology is a branch of meteorology and hydrology that studies the transfer of water and energy between the land surface and the loweratmosphere.

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Dr. Rafael L. Bras is an engineer and expert in hydrometeorology and global warming. As an engineering hydrologist, his major areas of interest include land-atmosphere interactions and geomorphology. He is considered one of the world's leading experts in global warming, and has also served as a professional consultant in multiple projects around the world. As a hydrologist, Dr. Bras has specialized in the interpretation of natural phenomena as random functions. He has been recognized for his use of modern probabilistic methods in the design of networks to monitor rainfall and river flow, and in rainfall and river discharge forecasting. Presently his interests span the areas of fluvial geomorphology and hydroclimatology.

Marine biology

Marine biology is the scientific study of living organisms in the ocean or other marine or brackish bodies of water.

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Dr. Antonio A. Mignucci-Giannoni is a biological oceanographer specializing in the biology, management and conservation of marine mammals. He is the founder of the international conservation organization Red Caribeña de Varamientos (Caribbean Stranding Network) dedicated to the care, treatment, and rehabilitation of injured or stranded marine mammals, sea turtle and sea birds. As a scientist, Mignucci is an expert in endangered tropical marine mammals and a specialist in the West Indian manatee.

Antonia Novello

Joseph Acaba

• Antonio Fernós-Isern - cardiologist.
• Ramón M. Suárez Calderon - Scientist, cardiologist, educator and hematologist
• Juan R. Correa-Pérez - andrologist and embryologist.
• José F. Cordero Pediatrician
  Cordero is the founding director of the National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities (NCBDDD) at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in Atlanta, Georgia.
• Dr. Manuel Martínez Maldonado MD; MACP, is a Nephrologist, educator, poet and author
  Martínez Maldonado has authored numerous scientific publications and discovered a natriuretic hormone.
• Dr. María Cordero Hardy - She is a scientist who did her research on vitamin E. Her work helped other scientists understand about how the vitamin works in the human body. She is now a professor at Louisiana State University and teaches students how to be medical technologists. A medical technologist is a person who studies your blood and other body fluids in the human body.
• Pedro Beauchamp - endocrinologist.
• Eduardo Santiago Delpín - Surgeon who wrote the first book in Spanish about organ transplant.
• Diego R. Solís - Physician
• Angel M. Marchand - Immunologist.
• Fernando E. Rodríguez Vargas - odontologist.
• Isaac González Martínez - first Puerto Rican urologist.
• Ivan Gonzalez Cancel - surgeon.
• Reinaldo Rampolla-Selles - pulmonologist.
• Antonia Coello Novello - pediatrician and 14th Surgeon General of the United States.
• Helen Rodriguez-Trias - pediatrician and public health researcher and advocate.
• Monserrate Roman - Microbiologist.
• Carlos E. Chardón - Mycologist.
• Carlos Albizu Miranda - Psychologist.
• Lissette Martinez is an electrical/aerospace engineer.
• Joseph Michael "Joe" Acaba - hydrogeologist/astronaut.
• Ramon E. Lopez - space physics researcher.
• Juan A. Rivero - zoologist.

Inventors

The number of patents issued to Puerto Rican inventors has increased noticeably over the last couple of decades. Puerto Rican inventors earned an average of sixteen patents per year in the late seventies, twenty patents per year in the eighties, and twenty-seven patents per year in the nineties. The total number of patents issued by the U.S. Patent Office has seen similar increases.

In the field of Aerospace (see "Aerospace" section) Olga D. González-Sanabria contributed to the development of the "Long Cycle-Life Nickel-Hydrogen Batteries" which helps enable the International Space Station power system; Mercedes Reaves conrtbuted to the design of a viable full-scale solar sail and the development and testing of a scale model solar sail; Dr. Pedro Rodriguez invented a portable, battery-operated lift seat for people suffering from knee arthritis; Dr. Felix Soto Toro developed the Advanced Payload Transfer Measurement System (ASPTMS) (Electronic 3D measuring system) and Dr. Juan R. Cruz contributed in the development of entry, descent, and landing (EDL) systems for robotic and human exploration missions. Puerto Ricans have also invented products for commercial use.

Art

Ileana Sánchez invented a book for the blind that brings together art and braille. Ms. Sanchez used a new technique called TechnoPrint and TechnoBraille. Rather than punch through heavy paper to create the raised dots of the Braille alphabet for the blind, these techniques apply an epoxy to the page to create not only raised dots, but raised images with texture. The epoxy melds with the page, becoming part of it, so that you can't scrape it off with your fingernail. The images are raised so that a blind person can feel the artwork and in color, not just to attract the sighted family who will read the book with blind siblings or children, but also for the blind themselves. The book "Art & the Alphabet, A Tactile Experience" is co-written with Rebecca McGinnis of the Metropolitan Museum of Art. The Met has already incorporated the book into their Access program.

Electronics

Hydroelectric Wave-Energy Conversion System

Jorge Negron Crespo of San Juan, Puerto Rico, has invented a hydroelectric wave-energy conversion system. According to the U.S. Patent & Trademark Office: "A method and system to capture kinetic energy of the sea waves and convert it to electrical power is presented. The hydrodynamic power of the waves is converted to mechanical power after impacting and moving a special panel. The mechanical power is converted into a controlled-cycle hydraulic power to activate a hydraulic motor, which in turn activates an electrical generator."

Semiconductors

David O. Ramos of Isabela, and Martin Bresciani of Guaynabo, developed a semiconductor substrate that includes electronic circuitry and has a machined feature formed therein. According to the U.S. Patent & Trademark Office: "A semiconductor substrate is formed by a process which includes providing the semiconductor substrate having the electronic circuitry formed therein, and performing a machining process on the substrate to form the machined feature therein."

Musical instruments

The cuatro is the national instrument of Puerto Rico. It belongs to the lute family of string instruments. Very little is known about the exact origin of the Cuatro.

William R. Cumpiano

William Richard Cumpiano is a world-renowned authority on the making of stringed musical instruments who is also renowned for his writing and teaching of the art ofluthiery. He has built numerous cuatros for musicians in the United States and also has crafted cuatro variants of his own design: he developed a "seis", or six-course (12-string) cuatro that can be tuned in the same string intervals as a guitar. He also developed the "thinline" cuatro with a body depth of only two inches instead of the traditional three.

Plastics

Three Puerto Rican inventors, Guanglou Cheng and Carlos A. Ramirez, both of Mayagüez and Maria Aponte of Añasco, Puerto Rico, developedbiodegradable polymers. A polymer is a large molecule (macromolecule) composed of repeating structural units connected by covalent chemical bonds. Well-known examples of polymers include plastics, DNA and proteins. According to the abstract released by the U.S. Patent & Trademark Office: "Degradable polymides are prepared in high yield by polymerizing a monomer containing at least two anhydride groups, and a monomer containing at least two primary amine groups and at least one acidic group, in bulk or in a solvent. The polymides are very strong in terms of their mechanical properties, yet degradable under standard physiological conditions." The inventors were issued U.S. Patent No. 7,427,654.

Public health

Ceramic Water Filter

Ronald "Ron" Rivera (1948–2008) invented an inexpensive ceramic water filter used to treat gray water in impoverished communities. He established community-based factories to produce the filters around the world.

The filter has been cited by the United Nations’ Appropriate Technology Handbook, and tens of thousands of filters have been distributed worldwide by organizations such asInternational Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent, Doctors Without Borders, UNICEF, Plan International, Project Concern International, Oxfam andUSAID.

Floating Strainer

Angel Torres-Collazo of Guaynabo, Puerto Rico, developed a big water floating strainer that is constructed with a rectangular frame. According to the U.S. Patent & Trademark Office: "A cylindrical drum is attached to each corner of the rectangular frame. Below the rectangular frame, a box-strainer is fixed. The distance between the box-strainer and the rectangular frame is adjustable so that the level at which water is drawn can be raised or lowered."

Reinforced concrete

Oscar Marty, who was born in San Juan, Puerto Rico, is an inventor who developed a modular system of permanent forms for casting reinforced concrete buildings on site. According to the U.S. Patent & Trademark Office: "A permanent form building assembly includes one or more glass-fiber reinforced concrete (GRC) forms having a one or more open cavities and a reinforcement structure. The GRC forms are designed and configured for a predetermined application. The reinforcement structure is inserted within the open cavities of the GRC forms prior to filling with concrete." The inventor was issued U.S. Patent No. 7,185,467.

Soft drinks

Angel Rivero

Ángel Rivero Méndez (1856–1930) was a soldier, writer, journalist and a businessman who is credited with inventing the "Kola Champagne" a soft drink.

After Rivero retired from the military, he founded the "Fabrica Polo Norte" (North Pole Factory) a soft drink company. Rivero is credited with the invention and elaboration of the "Kola Champagne" soda. Kola Champagne became, and still is, a very popular drink in Puerto Rico. It is also elaborated and sold in other countries, such as the United States, Colombia, Jamaica and Mexico.

See also

Timelines of United States inventions

• Timeline of United States inventions (before 1890)
• Timeline of United States inventions (1890–1945)
• Timeline of United States inventions (1946–1991)
• Timeline of United States inventions (after 1991)

Related topics

• To view U.S. inventions, please see Timeline of United States inventions.
• History of United States patent law
• Lemelson Foundation
• Lemelson–MIT Prize
• List of African American inventors and scientists
• List of famous Puerto Ricans
• List of inventors killed by their own inventions
• List of prolific inventors
• List of Puerto Ricans in the United States Space Program
• NASA spinoff
• National Inventors Hall of Fame
• Native American contributions
• Science and technology in the United States
• Technological and industrial history of the United States
• Timeline of United States discoveries
• United States Patent and Trademark Office
• United States patent law
• Yankee ingenuity