The Philippines being one of the major theaters of World War II, has commissioned a number of monuments, cemeteries memorials, preserved relics, and established private and public museums, as well as National Shrines, to commemorate battles and events during the invasion, occupation, and liberation of the country. The United States and Japan also has established a number of memorials in the country.
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The National Historical Commission provides national level oversight for national shrines. However, there are local and private initiatives to commemorate battles, massacres, and local heroes.[1]
The events of World War II has forged a national identity for the country, as well as established traditions for the Philippine military.[2][3]
Background edit
Following the attack on Pearl Harbor, the Philippines being a commonwealth colony of the United States of America, was attacked by Japan on December 8, 1941. The attack was followed with landings made by the Imperial Japanese Army's 14th Area Army under Gen. Masaharu Homma in northern Luzon, Lingayen Gulf, and Davao.[4] Gen. Douglas MacArthur lead the United States Army Forces in the Far East (USAFFE) which absorbed the Philippine Army. While the rest of Southeast Asia capitulated to the Imperial Japanese Army's southern advance, American and Filipino forces withdrew to Bataan peninsula and Corregidor Island and held out for the next few months. Gen. MacArthur and Pres. Manuel L. Quezon was later directed by Washington to escape to Australia, where the former were to lead the American forces in the Southwest Pacific, and the latter to establish a government-in-exile in the United AStates.[5]
Due to the lack of reinforcement and supplies, and continuous Japanese onslaught, the USAFFE in Bataan under Gen. Edward King surrendered on April 9, 1942, which saw the largest surrender of American forces on foreign soil and lead to the infamous Bataan Death March where more than 16,000 of the 80,0000 American and Filipino POWs died. This was followed by Gen. Jonathan Wainwright's surrender of Corregidor on May 6, 1942, completing the occupation of Japan over the Philippines.[4]
The POWs were then incarcerated in the Camp O'Donnell, where the IJA was ill-prepared to handle the numbers. The lack of supplies and basic needs has brought to 400 deaths per day among the POWs.[4]
For the next 3.5 years, the Philippines came under Japan's Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. While there were a number of leaders who collaborated with the Japanese authorities, some opted to resist through guerrilla warfare. The Filipino and American guerrillas provided critical intelligence to Gen. MacArthur's headquarters, and harassed Japanese forces during their occupation.[6] The Filipino general public meanwhile suffered under oppressive Japanese retaliations, aside from the economic hardship brought about by the war.[7]
Gen. MacArthur returned to the Philippines on October 24, 1944, with the largest amphibious operation in the Pacific Theater in Leyte Island. This was followed by the invasion of Mindoro on December for the establishment of air bases for Gen. George Kenney's Far East Air Force to cover the invasion of Luzon in January 1945. In the next few weeks, Gen. MacArthur's Sixth and Eighth Army moved from Lingayen and Batangas on a pincer move towards the capital, culminating in the Battle of Manila. In the next few months, the rest of the Philippines was liberated by both armies in successive battles.[8]
After the surrender of Japan in September 1945, the American forces began establishing cemeteries around the country to commemorate the fallen American and Filipino troops, as well as civilians. When the Philippines gained independence on July 4, 1946, the country continued with the establishment of memorials, monuments, and commemoration of events during World War II.[9][10]
National Shrines edit
| Name | Category | Location | Established | Remarks | Coordinates | Image |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mount Samat National Shrine | National Shrine | Pilar, Bataan | 1970 | To commemorate the valor of American and Filipino troops in Bataan, and the eventual surrender on April 9, 1944. Primary location of the celebration of Philippine Day of Valor or Araw ng Kagitingan. | 14°36′20.80″N 120°30′32.17″E / 14.6057778°N 120.5089361°E |
|
| Pacific War Memorial[11] | National Shrine | Corregidor, Cavite | 1968 | To commemorate the American and Filipino forces who lost their lives during World War II. | 14°22′52″N 120°34′34″E / 14.3812°N 120.5760°E |
|
| Capas National Shrine | National Shrine | Capas, Tarlac | 1991 | To commemorate the suffering of American and Filipino POWs interred in the Japanese concentration camps.[12] | 15°20′56″N 120°32′43″E / 15.34891°N 120.545246°E |
|
| Manila American Cemetery | Cemetery | Fort Bonifacio, Metro Manila | 1948 | Cemetery for 17,206 American and Filipino military personnel from WWII. | 14°32′28″N 121°03′00″E / 14.541°N 121.050°E |
|
| Libingan ng mga Bayani | Cemetery | Fort Bonifacio, Metro Manila | 1947 | Cemetery for 58,780 Filipino military personnel and veterans from WWII, Korean War, Vietnam War and local insurgencies. | 14°31′12″N 121°02′38″E / 14.520°N 121.044°E |
|
| Dalton Pass National Shrine | National Shrine | Santa Fe, Nueva Vizcaya | Date | Location of the Battle of Balete Pass or Dalton Pass, where Japanese and American forces fought on March 1945. | 16°07′59″N 120°55′48″E / 16.1331°N 120.9301°E |
|
| Kiangan National Shrine | National Shrine | Kiangan, Ifugao | Date | Location where World War II ended in the Philippines during the surrender of Gen. Tomoyuki Yamashita. | 16°46′45″N 121°04′53″E / 16.7793°N 121.0814°E |
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Museums edit
| Name | Category | Location | Established | Remarks | Coordinates | Image |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mount Samat WWII Museum | Public Museum | Pilar, Bataan | 1970 | Displays relics, static displays, and accounts of the Battle of Bataan. | 14°36′20.80″N 120°30′32.17″E / 14.6057778°N 120.5089361°E |
|
| Corregidor Museum & Tour | Public Museum | Corregidor, Cavite | The whole island has been turned into a museum and tour site, with visits to gun batteries, shrines, markers, and museums. | 14°22′52″N 120°34′34″E / 14.3812°N 120.5760°E |
| |
| Capas National Shrine Museum | Public Museum | Capas, Tarlac | 1991 | Visual documentation and accounts of the suffering of the American and Filipino POWs incarcerated in this location after the Battle of Bataan. Also displays a PNR cattle car where 60-80 men were crammed in for a day's ride from San Fernando to Capas. | 15°20′56″N 120°32′43″E / 15.34891°N 120.545246°E |
|
| Manila American Cemetery & Memorial | Public Museum | Fort Bonifacio, Metro Manila | 2020 | Newly opened museum at the visitors center depicting the heroic actions of American and Filipino soldiers during the WWII. | 14°32′24″N 121°03′03″E / 14.5399°N 121.0509°E |
|
| Clark Museum | Museum | Clark Freeport and Special Economic Zone, Pampanga | 1993 | Contains relics, weapons, and uniforms from WW2.. | 14°10′08″N 121°13′22″E / 14.1690°N 121.2227°E |
|
| AFP Museum | Museum | Camp Aguinaldo, Quezon City | Date | Contains static displays, relics, weapons, and uniforms from WW2. | 14°36′40″N 121°03′42″E / 14.6110°N 121.0618°E |
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| Casa Real Shrine | Museum | Malolos, Bulacan | Date | Contains WW2 relics including copy of Gen. Yamashita's Instrument of Surrender. | 14°50′40″N 120°48′41″E / 14.8445°N 120.8114°E |
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| Fort Santiago Dungeon[13] | Museum | Intramuros, Manila | Museum commemorating torture site used by Kempetai on Filipino military and civilians. | 14°35′26″N 120°58′27″E / 14.5906°N 120.9743°E |
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| Bataan World War II Museum | Museum | Balanga Elementary School, Balanga, Bataan | Municipal museum located adjacent to the Surrender of Bataan Monument at the Balanga Elementary School. Contains relics and historical account of the Battle of Bataan. | 14°40′52″N 120°32′45″E / 14.6810°N 120.5458°E |
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Battle Sites & Events Markers edit
| Name | Category | Location | Established | Remarks | Coordinates | Image |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Battle of Barrio Piis | Marker | Lucban, Quezon | 2010 | Marker commemorating the battle between units of the Philippine Army's 1st Regular Division, and the Japanese invading forces that landed in Mauban on December 26, 1941. | 14°51′14″N 120°28′26″E / 14.8539°N 120.4738°E |
|
| First Line of Defense Monument | Monument | Dinalupihan, Bataan | Monument commemorating the location of the first line of defense by the defenders of Bataan. | 14°51′14″N 120°28′26″E / 14.8539°N 120.4738°E |
| |
| MacArthur Memorial Marker | Monument | Cagayan de Oro, Misamis Oriental | 2008 | Monument to commemorate the escape of Pres. Quezon and Gen. MacArhtur's to Australia through Cagayan de Oro. | 8°30′04″N 124°39′52″E / 8.50111°N 124.66444°E |
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| Gen. Douglas MacArthur Landmark | Monument | Del Monte Airfield, Manolo Fortich, Bukidnon | Monument to commemorate Gen. MacArthur's and the Philippine Commonwealth Government's escape to Australia, through Del Monte Airfield. Inscription: In alis vincimus (On wings we conquer) | 08°21′42″N 124°50′00″E / 8.36167°N 124.83333°E |
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| Final Battle of Bataan Marker | Marker | Pilar, Bataan | Date | Marker commemorating the last battle by the 41st Infantry Division against Japanese forces on April 8, 1942. | 14°38′00″N 120°30′40″E / 14.6333°N 120.5111°E | Image |
| II Corps Last Line Marker | Marker | Bgy. Alangan, Limay, Bataan | Location of Gen. Edward P. King's last command HQ over the forces in Bataan. Alangan River served as the last line of defense up to April 8, 1942. | 14°40′52″N 120°32′45″E / 14.6810°N 120.5458°E |
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| Surrender of Bataan Marker | Monument | Bataan WWII Museum, Balanga, Bataan | Location of Gen. Edward P. King's surrender of USAFFE forces in Bataan to Japanese command on April 9, 1942. | 14°40′52″N 120°32′45″E / 14.6810°N 120.5458°E |
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| Bataan Death March Kilometer Zero | Kilometer Post | Mariveles, Bataan | Starting point of Bataan Death March in Mariveles, Bataan. | 14°26′10″N 120°29′28″E / 14.4361°N 120.4910°E |
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| San Fernando Train Station Death March Marker | Marker | San Fernando, Pampanga | Date | Embarkation point of American and Filipino POWs into cattle cars of the Philippine National Railway to Capas, Tarlac. | 14°26′10″N 120°29′28″E / 14.4361°N 120.4910°E |
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| Santo Domingo Train Station Death March Marker | Monument | Capas, Tarlac | Date | Disembarkation point of American and Filipino POWs after being transported in cattle cars of the Philippine National Railway from San Fernando, Pampanga. | 14°26′10″N 120°29′28″E / 14.4361°N 120.4910°E |
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| Pantingan Massacre Site | Marker | Bagac, Bataan | Date | To commemorate the Patingan River Massacre. | Coord | Image |
| Jose Abad Santos Monument | Monument | Tanawan, Carcar City, Cebu | November 14, 2021 | Location commemorating the capture of Chief Justice Jose Abad Santos by the Japanese forces, and his eventual summary execution[14] | 10°07′42″N 123°35′57″E / 10.1284°N 123.5992°E | Image |
| Narwhal Park | Monument | Nasipit, Agusan del Norte | 2011 | Commemorating the efforts of the USS Narwhal in support of the guerrilla movement in Mindanao, and rescuing civilians to Australia. | 8°58′27″N 125°20′15″E / 8.97417°N 125.33750°E | |
| MacArthur Landing Memorial National Park | Monument | Palo, Leyte | Date | To commemorate the Leyte Landings October 24, 1944 during the Battle of Leyte | 11°10′20″N 125°00′44″E / 11.17222°N 125.01222°E | 
|
| Battle of Sibuyan Sea Monument | Monument | Alcantara, Romblon | 2007 | To commemorate the Battle of Sibuyan Sea and the sinking of the IJN battleship Musashi | 12°15′42″N 122°03′25″E / 12.2617°N 122.0569°E | 
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| Battle of Sibuyan Sea Monument | Monument | Banton, Romblon | To commemorate the Battle of Sibuyan Sea and the sinking of the IJN battleship Musashi | 12°56′45″N 122°05′46″E / 12.9459°N 122.0960°E | 
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| Battle of Surigao Strait Monument | Monument | Surigao City, Surigao del Norte | 2019 | To commemorate the Battle of Surigao Strait, the last battleship-to-battleship action in history | 15°14′21″N 120°34′08″E / 15.2393°N 120.5690°E | 
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| Kamikaze East Airfield Monument | Monument | Mabalacat, Pampanga | 2000 | Second airfield utilized by the Imperial Japanese Navy 1st Air Fleet during the counterattack against the American forces during the Battle of Leyte Gulf. | 12°21′34″N 121°02′35″E / 12.3595°N 121.0430°E | 
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| Kamikaze West Airfield Monument | Monument | Clark Freeport and Special Economic Zone, Mabalacat, Pampanga | October 25, 2004 | Second airfield utilized by the Imperial Japanese Navy 1st Air Fleet during the counterattack against the American forces during the Battle of Leyte Gulf.[15] | 15°13′02″N 120°32′59″E / 15.2172°N 120.5496°E | Image |
| Sindangan War Memorial Shrine | Marker | Sindangan, Zamboanga del Norte | Date | On September 7, 1944, the submarine USS Paddle torpedoed the Japanese hell ship Shinyo Maru. The crew did not know there were 750 American POWs. Only 82 POWs survived and were rescued by the residents of Sindangan. | 8°18′52″N 122°57′40″E / 8.3145°N 122.9611°E | Image |
| Agdangan Massacre Marker | Marker | Bgy. Agdangan, Baao, Camarines Sur | Date | On October 15, 1944, Japanese soldiers massacred 77 Filipino civilians of Agdangan after a Japanese courier was ambushed in the area. | 13°29′43″N 123°19′21″E / 13.4952°N 123.3226°E | 
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| Mindoro Landings Monument | Monument | San Jose, Occidental Mindoro | Date | To commemorate the Mindoro Landings which began the Battle of Mindoro on December 15, 1944 | 12°21′34″N 121°02′35″E / 12.3595°N 121.0430°E | 
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| Lingayen Landings Monument | Monument | Lingayen, Pangasinan | Date | To commemorate the Lingayen Landings on January 3, 1945. | 16°02′03″N 120°13′52″E / 16.03411°N 120.2311°E |
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| Zambales Landings Monument | Monument | San Narciso, Zambales | 1994 | To commemorate the Zamables Landings on January 19, 1945. | 15°00′53″N 120°03′54″E / 15.0147°N 120.0651°E |
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| Nasugbu Landings Monument | Monument | Nasugbu, Batangas | Date | To commemorate the Nasugbu Landings on January 31, 1945 by the Eighth United States Army. | 14°04′17″N 120°37′30″E / 14.07139°N 120.62513594012702°E | 
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| Tagaytay Ridge Landings Monument | Monument | Tagaytay City, Cavite | Date | To commemorate the Tagaytay airborne invasion on February 3, 1945, by the 11th Airborne Division. | 14°06′55″N 120°57′43″E / 14.1153°N 120.9619°E | 
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| Cabanatuan American Memorial | Memorial | Cabanatuan, Nueva Ecija | April 12, 1982 | Memorial for American POWs incarcerated at the Cabanatuan Concentration Camp, and their eventual rescue. | 15°30′40″N 121°02′38″E / 15.5110°N 121.0440°E | 
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| Palawan Massacre Marker | Marker | Plaza Cuartel, Puerto Princesa, Palawan | Location of Palawan Massacre by the Japanese on 100 American POWs. | 9°44′24″N 118°43′47″E / 9.7401°N 118.7296°E | 
| |
| UPLB Baker Memorial Hall | Marker | University of the Philippines Los Baños, Los Baños, Laguna | 2005 | Location of internment camp for American civilians. | 14°09′43″N 121°14′33″E / 14.1619°N 121.2426°E | _-_Baker_Hall_(Los_Ba%C3%B1os,_Laguna;_2017-02-16).jpg)
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| Memorare – Manila 1945[16] | Statue | Intramuros, Manila | 1995 | Memorial statue for the 100,000 civilian victims of the Manila Massacre. | 14°35′26″N 120°58′27″E / 14.5906°N 120.9743°E |
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| White Cross[13] | Marker | Intramuros, Manila | Marker commemorating the common grave of 600 individuals discovered in the Fort Santiago Dungeons after the Battle of Manila. | 14°35′26″N 120°58′27″E / 14.5906°N 120.9743°E |
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| Liberation of Baguio Marker | Marker | Naguilian Rd., Baguio City, Benguet | Dilapidated marker commemorating the efforts of the 33rd Infantry Division in liberating Baguio March 1945. | Coord |
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| Gen. Yamashita Surrender Site | Marker | Kiangan, Ifugao | Date | Gen. Yamashita, overall commander of Japanese forces in the Philippines surrendered at this location. | 16°46′38″N 121°05′07″E / 16.7771°N 121.08519708199573°E |
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| Gen. Tomoyuki Yamashita Execution Site Shrine | Marker | Los Baños, Laguna | Date | Execution site of Gen. Tomoyuki Yamashita | 14°10′08″N 121°13′22″E / 14.1690°N 121.2227°E |
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| Gen. Masaharu Homma Execution Site Marker | Marker | Los Baños, Laguna | Date | Execution site of Gen. Masaharu Homma. | 14°10′08″N 121°13′22″E / 14.1689°N 121.22280°E |
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Other Monuments & Markers edit
| Name | Category | Location | Established | Remarks | Coordinates | Image |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 41st Infantry Division Shrine | Monument | Tagaytay City, Cavite | Date | Monument commemorating the 41st Infantry Division under Gen. Vicente Lim. Tagaytay was the division's cantonment from September to December 1941, prior to their relocation to Bataan Peninsula. | 14°05′45″N 120°56′21″E / 14.0957°N 120.9391°E | 
|
| Philippine Army Artillery Memorial | Monument | Clark Freeport and Special Economic Zone, Mabalacat, Pampanga | 2017 | Original location of Camp Dau, established on March 10, 1937, under the leadership of Col. Fidel Segundo. | 15°10′57″N 120°34′29″E / 15.1824°N 120.5748°E |
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| Yahagi Memorial Cemetery | Monument | Don Pedro Subdivision, Marulas, Valenzuela | May 27, 1942 | Originally erected in 1938 to commemorate the 48 crew members of the IJN Yahagi who were buried at the British Cemetery Manila (current location). During, the Japanese occupation, the Imperial Japanese Navy celebrated their Navy Day with the rededication of the monument.[17] | 14°40′48″N 120°58′34″E / 14.6799°N 120.9762°E | |
| Philippine-Japanese Memorial Park | Park | New Bilibid Prison, Muntinlupa | Date | To commemorate the 17 Japanese POWs and war criminals executed by the Philippine Government from 1947 to 1952 after the war crimes trial in Manila. | 14°22′30″N 121°01′35″E / 14.3749°N 121.0263°E |
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| Japanese Garden | Shrine | Lumban, Laguna | January 14, 1973 | To commemorate the Japanese, American, and Philippine casualties during WW2, specifically in Southern Luzon under the Shimbu Group. | 14°17′01″N 121°30′38″E / 14.28362°N 121.5105°E |
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| Jose Gozar Monument | Monument | Calapan Plaza, Calapan City, Oriental Mindoro | 2018 | Commemoration of Lt. Jose Gozar of the Philippine Army Air Corps, who received the Distinguished Service Cross for his attempt at aerial ramming of Japanese bombers on December 10, 1942. | 13°24′53″N 121°10′45″E / 13.4147°N 121.1792°E | 
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| Tagudin Veterans Marker | Marker | Tagudin, Ilocos Sur | Marker commemorating the veterans of WWII from Tagudin, Ilocos Sur. | 16°56′02″N 120°26′41″E / 16.9339°N 120.4447°E |
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| Rosario Veterans Monument | Monument | Rosario, La Union | Monument commemorating the veterans of WWII from Rosario, La Union. | 16°13′47″N 120°29′14″E / 16.2298°N 120.4873°E |
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| Alcala Guerrilla Veterans Monument | Monument | Alcala, Pangasinan | Monument commemorating the veterans and guerrillas of WWII from Alcala, Pangasinan. | 15°50′45″N 120°31′13″E / 15.8458°N 120.5203°E |
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| Laur WWII Veterans Monument | Monument | Laur, Nueva Ecija | Monument commemorating the veterans and guerrillas of WWII from Laur, Nueva Ecija. | 15°35′01″N 121°11′06″E / 15.5837°N 121.1849°E |
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| Malolos Veterans Monument | Monument | Malolos, Bulacan | Monument commemorating the veterans of WWII from Malolos, Bulacan. | 14°50′36″N 120°48′40″E / 14.8434°N 120.8111°E |
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| Ususan Veterans Monument | Monument | Bgy. Ususan, Pateros, Metro Manila | Monument commemorating the veterans of WWII from Pateros, Metro Manila. | 14°32′07″N 121°04′04″E / 14.5352°N 121.0677°E |
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| Indang Veterans Monument | Monument | Indang, Cavite | 2014 | Monument commemorating the veterans of WWII from Indang, Cavite | 14°12′10″N 120°50′25″E / 14.20278°N 120.84028°E |
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| Naic Veterans Monument | Monument | Naic, Cavite | 2014 | Monument commemorating the veterans of WWII from Naic, Cavite | 14°19′17″N 120°46′18″E / 14.3215°N 120.7717°E |
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| Angono Veterans Memorial | Monument | Angono, Rizal | Monument commemorating the veterans and guerrillas of WWII from Angono, Rizal. | 14°31′56″N 121°09′09″E / 14.5323°N 121.1525°E |
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| Tanay Veterans Memorial | Monument | Tanay, Rizal | Monument commemorating the veterans and guerrillas of WWII from Tanay, Rizal. | 14°30′00″N 121°17′02″E / 14.5000°N 121.2839°E |
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| Famy-Siniloan Veterans Monument | Monument | Famy, Laguna | Monument commemorating the veterans of WWII from Siniloan, Laguna | 14°26′07″N 121°26′57″E / 14.4353°N 121.4492°E |
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| Pangil Veterans Monument | Monument | Pangil, Laguna | Monument commemorating the veterans of WWII from Pangil, Laguna | 14°26′07″N 121°26′56″E / 14.4353°N 121.4490°E |
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| Pakil Veterans Monument | Monument | Pakil, Laguna | Monument commemorating the veterans of WWII from Pakil, Laguna | 14°22′49″N 121°28′43″E / 14.3804°N 121.47863°E |
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| Paete Veterans Monument | Monument | Paete, Laguna | Monument commemorating the veterans of WWII from Paete, Laguna | 14°21′52″N 121°28′53″E / 14.3644°N 121.4813°E |
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| Pagsanjan Veterans Monument | Monument | Pagsanjan, Laguna | Monument commemorating the veterans of WWII from Pagsanjan, Laguna | 14°16′22″N 121°27′21″E / 14.2729°N 121.4558°E |
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| Calauan Veterans Monument | Monument | Calauan, Laguna | Monument commemorating the veterans of WWII from Calauan, Laguna | 14°09′01″N 121°18′53″E / 14.1502°N 121.3147°E |
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| Calamba Veterans Monument | Monument | Calamba, Laguna | Monument commemorating the veterans of WWII from Calamba, Laguna. | 14°12′53″N 121°10′05″E / 14.2146°N 121.1680°E |
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| Cavinti Veterans Monument | Monument | Cavinti, Laguna | Monument commemorating the veterans and guerrillas of WWII from Cavinti, Laguna. | 14°14′31″N 121°30′53″E / 14.2419°N 121.5146°E |
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| Tancong Vaca Guerrilla Unit Memorial | Monument | Bgy. San Nicolas, Canaman, Camarines Sur | Monument commemorating the Tancong Vaca Guerrilla Unit of Canaman, Camarines Sur.. | 13°39′05″N 123°06′09″E / 13.6514°N 123.1025°E |
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| Granada Veterans Monument | Monument | Bgy. Granada, Bacolod, Negros Occidental | Monument commemorating the veterans and guerrillas of WWII from Bgy. Granada, Bacolod City.[18] | 10°39′58″N 123°02′02″E / 10.6661°N 123.0340°E |
See also edit
References edit
- ^ Lagman, Oscar Jr. (February 13, 2023). "Removal of World War II memorials may be imminent". BusinessWorld Online. Business World. Retrieved May 16, 2023.
- ^ "The Significance of 1946 for Filipina/o Americans". Filipino American National Historical Society. FANHS. Retrieved May 16, 2023.
- ^ Law, John. "75 Years of US-Philippine Friendship". US Embassy in the Philippines. Department of State. Retrieved May 16, 2023.
- ^ a b c "Masaharu Homma and Japanese Atrocities | American Experience | PBS". www.pbs.org. Retrieved May 16, 2023.
- ^ Morton, Louis. "The Fall of the Philippines-Chapter 21". US Army Center for Military History. Department of Army. Retrieved May 16, 2023.
- ^ "The Guerrilla War: American Experience | PBS". www.pbs.org. Retrieved May 16, 2023.
- ^ Tachikawa, Kyoichi (October 2020). "The Japanese Army's Measures against Guerrilla Activities in the Philippines in the First Half of the Pacific War" (PDF). Anzenhosho Senryaku Kenkyu (Security & Strategies). 1 (2). Retrieved May 16, 2023.
- ^ "Reports of General MacArthur Vol. 1". US Army Center for Military History. Department of Army. Retrieved May 16, 2023.
- ^ "Manila American Cemetery". www.abmc.gov. American Battles Monuments Commission. Retrieved May 16, 2023.
- ^ Tantoco, Paco (August 31, 2016). "FAST FACTS: Libingan ng mga Bayani". Rapplier. Rappler. Retrieved May 16, 2023.
- ^ "Pacific War Memorial, Corregidor Island, Manila Bay, Philippines, 1968". digitalcollections.lib.washington.edu. Retrieved May 16, 2023.
- ^ "World War II POWs to be honored in Capas, Tarlac". Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines. April 8, 2015. Archived from the original on November 9, 2019. Retrieved November 9, 2019.
- ^ a b "Welcome to Fort Santiago". Intramuros Administration. Intramuros Administration. Retrieved May 16, 2023.
- ^ "Group inaugurates obelisk marker of Jose Abad Santos in Carcar City". SUNSTAR. February 19, 2021. Retrieved May 19, 2023.
- ^ "Mabalacat West Airfield Monument". www.kamikazeimages.net. Retrieved May 19, 2023.
- ^ "Memorial Civilian Casualties Manila 'Memorare' Intramuros - Manila - TracesOfWar.com". www.tracesofwar.com. Retrieved May 16, 2023.
- ^ "Navy Day Celebrated by Filipinos Today". The Tribune. May 27, 1942. Retrieved December 14, 2023.
- ^ "Humblest WWII Monument". makadto. March 10, 2015. Retrieved May 31, 2023.
External links edit
Media related to World War II memorials in the Philippines at Wikimedia Commons
