User:SomeGuyWhoRandomlyEdits/Kish (Sumer)

Kish is an important archaeological site in Babil Governorate (Iraq). Kish is located east of Babylon and 80 km (50 mi) south of Baghdad. The Kish archaeological site is an oval area roughly 8 by 3 km (5 by 2 mi), transected by the dry former bed of the Euphrates river, encompassing around 40 mounds, the largest being Tell al-Uhaymir and Tell Ingharra.

Prehistory

Ubaid period (c. 6500 – c. 3700 BC)

Further information: Ubaid period

Kish was occupied from the Ubaid period (c.5300-4300 BC).

Protohistory

Uruk period (c. 3700 – c. 3100 BC)

Further information: Uruk period

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Jemdet Nasr period (c. 3100 – c. 2900 BC)

Further information: Jemdet Nasr period

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History

Early Dynastic I period (c. 2900 – c. 2700 BC)

Further information: Early Dynastic I period

Kish gained prominence as one of the pre-eminent powers in the region during the Early Dynastic Period when it reached its maximum extent of 230 hectares.

First dynasty of Kish (c. 2900 – c. 2670 BC)

After the kingship descended from heaven, the kingship was in Eridu. In Eridu, Alulim became king; he ruled for 28,800 years. Alalngar ruled for 36,000 years. 2 kings; they ruled for 64,800 years. Then Eridu fell and the kingship was taken to Bad-tibira. In Bad-tibira, En-men-lu-ana ruled for 43,200 years. En-men-gal-ana ruled for 28,800 years. Dumuzid, the Shepherd, ruled for 36,000 years. 3 kings; they ruled for 108,000 years. Then Bad-tibira fell and the kingship was taken to Larak. In Larak, En-sipad-zid-ana ruled for 28,800 years. 1 king; he ruled for 28,800 years. Then Larak fell and the kingship was taken to Sippar. In Sippar, En-men-dur-ana became king; he ruled for 21,000 years. 1 king; he ruled for 21,000 years. Then Sippar fell and the kingship was taken to Shuruppak. In Shuruppak, Ubara-Tutu became king; he ruled for 18,600 years. 1 king; he ruled for 18,600 years. In 5 cities 8 kings; they ruled for 241,209 years. Then the flood swept over. After the flood had swept over, and the kingship had descended from heaven, the kingship was in Kish. In Kish, Jushur became king; he ruled for 1,200 years. Kullassina-bel ruled for 900 years. Nangishlishma ruled for 670 years. En-tarah-ana ruled for 420 years, 3 months, and 3½ days. Babum ruled for 300 years. Puannum ruled for 240 years. Kalibum ruled for 900 years. Kalumum ruled for 840 years. Zuqaqip ruled for 600 years. Atab ruled for 600 years. Mashda, the son of Atab, ruled for 720 years. Arwium, the son of Mashda, ruled for 720 years. Etana, the shepherd, who ascended to heaven and consolidated all the foreign countries, became king; he ruled for 1,500 years. Balih, the son of Etana, ruled for 410 years. En-me-nuna ruled for 621 years. Melem-Kish, the son of En-me-nuna, ruled for 900 years. 1,560 are the years of the dynasty of En-me-nuna. Barsal-nuna, the son of En-me-nuna, ruled for 1,200 years. Zamug, the son of Barsal-nuna, ruled for 140 years. Tizqar, the son of Zamug, ruled for 305 years. Ilku ruled for 900 years. Iltasadum ruled for 1,200 years. Enmebaragesi, who made the land of Elam submit, became king; he ruled for 900 years. Aga, the son of Enmebaragesi, ruled for 625 years. 1,525 are the years of the dynasty of Enmebaragesi. 23 kings; they ruled for 24,510 years, 3 months, and 3½ days. Then Kish was defeated and the kingship was taken to Eanna.

— Sumerian King List (SKL)

The SKL states that Kish was the first city to have kings following a flood (beginning with Jushur); moreover, it indicated the existence of a Semitic population in the regions of the Diyala river and upper Mesopotamia. Jushur's successor is referred to as Kullassina-bel; additionally, this is an East Semitic sentence meaning all of them were lord. Thus, some scholars have suggested that this may have been intended to signify the absence of a central authority in Kish for a time. The names of the next ten kings of Kish (preceding Etana) are: Nangishlishma, En-tarah-ana, Babum, Puannum, Kalibum, Kalumum, Zuqaqip, Atab, Mashda, and Arwium. Most of these names are East Semitic words for animals (e.g. Zuqaqip means scorpion); in fact, most of the names of the first dynasty of Kish (aside from Enmebaragesi and Aga) may have been Kishite names.

The Semitic nature of their names revealed that the city's population may have had a strong Semitic component from the dawn of recorded history. A Bayesian analysis suggested an origin for all known Semitic languages with a population of ancient Semitic-speaking peoples migrating from the Levant c. 3750 BC; furthermore, spreading into Mesopotamia and possibly contributing to the collapse of the Uruk period c. 3100 BC. Kish has been identified as the center of the earliest known East Semitic culture—its own civilization. This early East Semitic culture is characterized by linguistic, literary, and orthographic similarities extending across settlements such as Ebla, Mari, Abu Salabikh, and Nagar.

The similarities include the use of a writing system that contained non-Sumerian logograms, the use of the same system in naming the months of the year, dating by regnal years, and a measuring system (among many others). However, the existence of a single authority ruling those lands has not been assumed as each city had its own monarchical system, in addition to some linguistic differences for while the languages of Mari and Ebla were closely related, Kish represented an independent East Semitic linguistic entity that spoke a sort of dialect (Kishite), different from both pre-Sargonic Akkadian and Eblaite. The East Semitic languages are one of three divisions of the Semitic languages, and is attested by three distinct languages: Kishite, Akkadian, and Eblaite (all of which have been long extinct). Kishite is the oldest known Semitic language.

Throughout the third millennium BC, an intimate cultural symbiosis developed between Sumerians and Semites (which included widespread bilingualism). The influence of the Sumerian and East Semitic languages on each other is evident in all areas, from lexical borrowing on a substantial scale to syntactic, morphological, and phonological convergence. This has prompted scholars to refer to Sumerian and the East Semitic languages during the third millennium BC as a sprachbund.

Early Dynastic II period (c. 2700 – c. 2600 BC)

First dynasty of Uruk (c. 2670 – c. 2570 BC)

Further information: Uruk

In Eanna, Meshkiangasher, the son of Utu, became lord and king; he ruled for 325 years. Meshkiangasher entered the sea and disappeared. Enmerkar, the son of Meshkiangasher, under whom Uruk was built, became king; he ruled for 420 years. 745 are the years of the dynasty of Meshkiangasher. Lugalbanda, the shepherd, ruled for 1,200 years. Dumuzid, the fisherman whose city was Kuara, ruled for 110 years. He captured Enmebaragesi single-handed. Gilgamesh, whose father was a phantom, the lord of Kulaba, ruled for 126 years. Ur-Nungal, the son of Gilgamesh, ruled for 30 years. Udul-kalama, the son of Ur-Nungal, ruled for 15 years. La-ba'shum ruled for 9 years. En-nun-tarah-ana ruled for 8 years. Mesh-he, the smith, ruled for 36 years. Melem-ana ruled for 6 years. Lugal-kitun ruled for 36 years. 12 kings; they ruled for 2,310 years. Then Uruk was defeated and the kingship was taken to Ur.

— SKL

The Early Dynastic (ED) period begins c. 2900 BC and was associated with a shift from the temple establishment headed by council of elders led by a priestly "lord" towards a more secular "king" and includes such legendary patriarchal figures as Dumuzid, Lugalbanda and Gilgamesh—who reigned shortly before the historic record opens c. 2900 BC, when the now-deciphered syllabic writing started to develop from the early pictograms. The center of Sumerian culture remained in lower Mesopotamia, even though rulers soon began expanding into neighboring areas, and neighboring Semitic groups adopted much of Sumerian culture for their own. The SKL stated that Kish was the first city to have kings following the flood. After the first twelve kings a massive flood devastated Mesopotamia.

The earliest ED king on the SKL whose name is known from other legendary sources is Etana, whom it called "the shepherd, who ascended to heaven and consolidated all the foreign countries". According to the Sumerians: Ishtar gave the kingship to Etana after the flood. This implies that the historical Etana stabilized the kingdom by bringing peace and order to the area after the flood. Etana is also sometimes credited with the founding of Kish. He was estimated to have lived sometime c. 3000 – c. 2800 BC.

The earliest king on the SKL whose historical existence has been independently attested through archaeological inscription is Enmebaragesi, said to have defeated Elam and built the temple of Enlil in Nippur. Enmebaragesi is also known through other literary references, in which he and his son (Aga) were portrayed as contemporary rivals of Dumuzid and Gilgamesh of Uruk. Enmebaragesi was mentioned in the Epic of Gilgamesh—leading to the suggestion that Gilgamesh himself might have been a historical king of Uruk. As the Epic of Gilgamesh shows, this period was associated with increased warfare. Cities had become walled, and increased in size as undefended villages in southern Mesopotamia disappeared.

Aga is said to have fought against Gilgamesh. From this time, for a period Uruk seems to have had some kind of hegemony in Sumer. This illustrates a weakness of the SKL, as contemporaries are often placed in successive dynasties, making reconstruction difficult.

Early Dynastic IIIa period (c. 2600 – c. 2500 BC)

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Tell Ingharra

Mound E

Twin ziggurats

Tell Ingharra is believed to be the location of Hursagkalamma, east of Kish home of a temple of Inanna. Twin ziggurats were found there. Located in the eastern side of the ancient Kish, Tell Ingharra was extensively explored during the Chicago excavation and provided the best known archaeological sequence in the 3rd millennium BC site. In particular, the 1923 excavation concentrated heavily on mound E with its twin ziggurats, while the Neo-Babylonian temple was one of the two buildings that was properly described in a published report.

The twin ziggurats were built of small plano-convex bricks in a herringbone fashion on the summit of Tell Ingharra. The larger one is located on the south-west side of the temple and the smaller one on the south-east side. The excavation report mainly focused on the larger ziggurat while there had been only one report on the smaller one by Mackay. Based on the findings from the larger ziggurat, it is suggested that the structures were built at the end of the Early Dynastic IIIa period to commemorate the city. The fascination of the ziggurats was interesting to the excavators as it was the only Early Dynastic structure that was not destroyed or obscured by later reconstructions, which was why it provided valuable evidence of that time period.

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Mound A

The Sumerian Palace

Mound A, which includes a cemetery and a palace, was discovered during 1922-1925 excavations conducted by Ernest Mackay, under the Field Museum and Oxford University. Although it was earlier a part of the Ingharra mounds lying about 70 meters to the north, it is now separated by an alluvial valley. The seals and other artifacts found in the graves, dating back to a later age than the palace, show that the site was used as a cemetery even in the pre-Sargonic times.

The palace, which was unearthed beneath the mound, had fallen into decay and was used as a burial ground during Early Dynastic III. It comprises three sections - the original building, the eastern wing and stairway, and the annex. The original building, which was composed of unbaked plano-convex bricks (23 x 15 x 3.50-6 cm), had extremely thick walls, while the annex, which was added later to the south of the building, had comparatively thinner walls. A 2.30 m wide passage was constructed within the outer wall of the original building to prevent invaders from entering the structure. The archaeological findings within the palace lack pottery items, the most remarkable among them was a fragment of slate and limestone inlay work, which represents the scene of a king punishing a prisoner.

Area P

Plano-Convex Building

Area P is located in the northern part of Kish where the "Plano-Convex Building" (PCB) resided. This area was unearthed during the second excavation season (1923-1924) led by Mackay, which uncovered the PCB. But outstanding discoveries in Palace A rapidly overshadowed the contemporary excavation here, and the building remained partially uncovered.

Revealed by its stratigraphy and pottery assemblage was the existence of three distinct architectural phases. The earliest archaeological occupation dates back to the ED II period. Above it, rested the massive ED III construction – the PCB. Multiple rooms in the PCB exhibited layers of ashes and charcoals with arrowheads and copper blades, attested that the PCB suffered significant destruction twice during the late ED III period. After its destruction, the PCB was abandoned. Located above later floors of the PCB were scattered burials during the Akkadian period.

The Plano-convex building was a fortified construction built extensively with plano-convex bricks. It displayed the socio-economic dynamics at Kish during the ED III period. No characteristic linking the building to a religious construct. Instead, the Plano-convex building is recognized as a public building associated with the economical production of beer, textile and oil. The PCB might have also housed the administrative center powered by the elites. First recognized by Margueron, scholars have divided the building into four main sectors based on the architectural layout:

• Sector A: Production area.
• Sector B: Inconclusive but arguably an administration area.
• Sector C: Unknown but exhibit a high degree of segregation.
• Sector D: Private, domestic area for housing activities.

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Governorship of Kish (c. 2570 – c. 2550 BC)

Two rulers (neither appear on the SKL) are known to have ruled from Kish in between its first and second dynasties: Uhub (r. c. 2570 BC) and Mesilim (r. c. 2550 BC).

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Predynastic Ur (c. 2550 BC)

Further information: Ur

In Ur, Mesannepada became king; he ruled for 80 years. Meskiagnun, the son of Mesannepada, became king; he ruled for 36 years. Elulu ruled for 25 years. Balulu ruled for 36 years. 4 kings; they ruled for 171 years. Then Ur was defeated and the kingship was taken to Awan.

— SKL

Mesilim may have enjoyed suzerainty over Ur and Adab. He is also mentioned in some of the earliest monuments as arbitrating a border dispute between Lagash and Umma.

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Dynasty of Awan (c. 2550 BC)

Further information: Awan (ancient city) and Awan dynasty

In Awan, [...] became king; he ruled for [...] years. [...]-Lu ruled for [...] years. Kul[...] ruled for 36 years. 3 kings; they ruled for 356 years. Then Awan was defeated and the kingship was taken to Kish.

— SKL

Second dynasty of Kish (c. 2550 – c. 2530 BC)

Then Awan was defeated and the kingship was taken to Kish. In Kish, Susuda, the fuller, became king; he ruled for 201 years. Dadasig ruled for 81 years. Mamagal, the boatman, ruled for 420 years. Kalbum, the son of Mamagal, ruled for 132 years. Tuge ruled for 360 years. Men-nuna, the son of Tuge, ruled for 180 years. Enbi-Ishtar ruled for 290 years. Lugalngu ruled for 360 years. 8 kings; they ruled for 3,195 years.

— SKL

The SKL names another eight kings for this dynasty: Susuda, Dadasig, Mamagal, Kalbum, Tuge, Mennuna, Enbi-Ishtar, and Lugalngu. Next to nothing is known about the aforementioned eight.

Dynasty of Hamazi (c. 2530 – c. 2500 BC)

Further information: Hamazi

Early Dynastic IIIb period (c. 2500 – c. 2350 BC)

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First dynasty of Lagash (c. 2430 – c. 2425 BC)

Further information: Lagash

First dynasty of Ur (c. 2425 BC)

Further information: First dynasty of Ur

Dynasty of Adab (c. 2425 BC)

Further information: Adab (city)

Dynasty of Mari (c. 2425 – c. 2411 BC)

Further information: Mari, Syria

Third dynasty of Kish (c. 2411 BC)

In Kish, Kubaba, the woman tavern-keeper, who made firm the foundations of Kish, became king; she ruled for 100 years. 1 king; she ruled for 100 years. Then Kish was defeated and the kingship was taken to Akshak.

— SKL

The third dynasty of Kish is unique in that it is represented by a woman named Kubaba (r. c. 2400 BC). The SKL adds that she had been a tavern-keeper before overthrowing the hegemony of Mari and becoming monarch. According to the Weidner Chronicle: the god Marduk handed over the kingship to Kubaba of Kish during the reign of Puzur-Nirah of Akshak; although, according to the SKL: the Akshak dynasty succeeded the third of Kish. Although its military and economic power was diminished, Kish retained a strong political and symbolic significance. Just as with Nippur to the south, control of Kish was a prime element in legitimizing dominance over the north of Mesopotamia (Assyria and/or Subartu).

Kubaba's dynasty is sometimes said to include her son Puzur-Suen (r. c. 2360 BC) and grandson Ur-Zababa (r. c. 2340 BC). The SKL ascribes a 100-year-long reign for the matriarch, 25 for her son, and (varyingly) 4, 6, or even up to 400 years to her grandson. Altogether they ruled for 131 years.

Sargon of Akkad came from an area near Kish called Azupiranu. He would later declare himself the king of Kish, as an attempt to signify his connection to the religiously important area. Because of the city's symbolic value, strong rulers later claimed the traditional title "king of Kish", even if they were from Akkad, Ur, Assyria, Isin, Larsa, or Babylon. Kubaba was later deified as the goddess Kheba.

Dynasty of Akshak (c. 2411 – c. 2391 BC)

Further information: Akshak

Fourth dynasty of Kish (c. 2391 – c. 2350 BC)

In Kish, Puzur-Suen, the son of Kubaba, became king; he ruled for 25 years. Ur-Zababa, the son of Puzur-Suen, ruled for 6 years. 131 are the years of the dynasty of Kubaba. Zimudar ruled for 30 years. Usiwater, the son of Zimudar, ruled for 6 years. Eshtar-muti ruled for 11 years. Ishme-Shamash ruled for 11 years. Shu-ilishu ruled for 15 years. Nanniya, the jeweller, ruled for 3 years. 7 kings; they ruled for 485 years. Then the reign of Kish was abolished and the kingship was returned a third time to Uruk.

— SKL

The kings of the fourth dynasty of Kish are believed to have r. c. 2334 – c. 2254 BC. Some versions of the SKL lists 6, 7, or 8 kings (including the son and grandson of Kubaba from the third dynasty). Beside the aforementioned two related to the third dynasty, there is: Zimudar, Usiwater, Eshtar-muti, Ishme-Shamash, Shu-ilishu, Nanniya. Zimudar and his successors seem to have been vassals for Sargon of Akkad, and there is no evidence that they ever exercised hegemony in Sumer.

Proto-Imperial period (c. 2350 – c. 2334 BC)

First dynasty of Umma (c. 2348 – c. 2316 BC)

Further information: Umma

Akkadian period (c. 2305 – c. 2154 BC)

Further information: Akkadian Period

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Dynasty of Akkad (c. 2305 – c. 2254 BC)

Further information: Sargonic dynasty and Akkad (city)

Gutian period (c. 2154 – c. 2119 BC)

Further information: Gutian period

Dynasty of Gutium (c. 2154 – c. 2119 BC)

Further information: Gutium

Ur III period (c. 2119 – c. 2004 BC)

Further information: Ur III period

Isin-Larsa period (c. 2004 – c. 1792 BC)

Further information: Isin-Larsa period

First dynasty of Isin (c. 2004 – c. 1923 BC)

Further information: Dynasty of Isin

Kingdom of Kazallu (c. 1923 – c. 1920 BC)

Further information: Kazallu

After the fall of the Akkadian Empire, Kish became the capital of a small independent kingdom. One king, named Ashduniarim, ruled around the same time as Lipit-Ishtar of Isin.

Kingdom of Kisurra (c. 1920 – c. 1910 BC)

Further information: Kisurra

Kingdom of Kutha (c. 1910 – c. 1898 BC)

Further information: Kutha

By the early part of the First Dynasty of Babylon, during the reigns of Sumu-abum and Sumu-la-El, Kish appears to have come under the rule of another city-state, possibly Kutha.

Kingdom of Marad (c. 1898 – c. 1888 BC)

Further information: Marad

Iawium, king of Kish around this time, ruled as a vassal of kings named Halium and Manana.

Old Babylonian period (c. 1847 – c. 1595 BC)

Further information: Old Babylonian period

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First dynasty of Babylon (c. 1847 – c. 1595 BC)

Further information: Amorite dynasty

Sumu-la-El conquered Kish and, later, subjugated Halium and Manana, bringing their territories into the expanding Babylonian Empire. The First Dynasty kings Hammurabi and Samsu-iluna undertook construction at Kish, with the former restoring the city's ziggurat and the latter building a wall around Kish. By this time, the eastern settlement at Hursagkalama had become viewed as a distinct city, and it was probably not included in the walled area.

Tell al-Uhaymir

Because of its close proximity to Babylon the site was visited by a number of explorers and travelers in the 19th century, some involving excavation, most notably by the foreman of Hormuzd Rassam who dug there with a crew of 20 men for a number of months. None of this early work was published. A French archaeological team under Henri de Genouillac excavated at Tell al-Uhaymir between 1912 and 1914, finding some 1,400 Old Babylonian tablets which were distributed to the Istanbul Archaeology Museum and the Louvre. Later, a joint Field Museum and University of Oxford team under Stephen Langdon excavated from 1923 to 1933, with the recovered materials split between Chicago and the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford. The actual excavations at Tell al-Uhaymir were led initially by E. MacKay and later by L. C. Watelin. Work on the faunal and flora remains was conducted by Henry Field. More recently, a Japanese team from the Kokushikan University led by Ken Matsumoto excavated at Tell al-Uhaymir in 1988, 2000, and 2001. The final season lasted only one week.

Middle Babylonian period (c. 1595 – c. 911 BC)

Further information: Middle Babylonian period

Neo-Assyrian period (c. 911 – c. 609 BC)

Further information: Neo-Assyrian period

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Mound W

Mound W is where a number of Neo-Assyrian tablets were discovered. After irregularly excavated tablets began appearing at the beginning of the twentieth century, François Thureau-Dangin identified the site as being Kish. Those tablets ended up in a variety of museums.

Neo-Babylonian period (c. 609 – c. 539 BC)

Further information: Neo-Babylonian empire

Neo-Babylonian temple complex at Tell Ingharra

As for the temple complex, the findings of the temple had determined that the mound was part of the city of Hursagkalama. It was used as an active religious centre until after 482 BC. They also had identified the builder as Nabonidus or Nebuchadnezzar II based on the bricks with inscriptions and barrel cylinder fragments reported in the temple.

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Achaemenid period (c. 539 – c. 330 BC)

Further information: Achaemenid period, Achaemenid Assyria, and Babylonia (Persian province)

Hellenistic period (c. 330 – c. 238 BC)

Further information: Hellenistic period

Kish continued to be occupied until the Hellenistic period.

Parthian period (c. 238 BC – AD c. 116)

Further information: Parthian Empire

After the Achaemenid period, Kish completely disappears from the historical record; however, archaeological evidence indicates that the town remained in existence for a long time thereafter. Although the site at Tell al-Uhaymir was mostly abandoned, Tell Ingharra was revived during the Parthian period, growing into a sizeable town with a large mud-brick fortress.

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Tell el-Bender

In the Chicago expedition to Kish in 1923-1933, another section included Tell el-Bender (where Parthian material is held).

Roman imperial period (AD c. 116 – c. 226)

Further information: Roman imperial period (chronology) and Mesopotamia (Roman province)

Sassanian period (AD c. 226 – c. 637)

Further information: Sassanian period and Asoristan

During the Sasanian period, the site of the old city was completely abandoned in favor of a string of connected settlements spread out along both sides of the Shatt en-Nil canal.

Tell H

Tell H is identified roughly as "The Sasanian Settlement". In the 1923-1933 Expedition, Tell H became the focus of its final three seasons (1930-1933). Due to personal reasons of the excavators, the Kish material in this section remained selective, mainly yielding Sasanian pottery, coins, incantation bowls and so on. The dating of this section crossed a range of periods, with layer upon layer built on the site. Evidence shows that in the Early Dynastic III Period, there once even existed a twin city. Therefore, the city occupies a relatively unsettled presence in chronology. But from the excavation, eight buildings were identified as from the Sasanian period, thus making this place primarily identified as the Sasanian Settlement. Researchers suspect that some of the buildings might function together as a complex serving different purposes, including royal residence, storage, and administration.

The most prominent finding is the stucco decoration in the first two buildings, while the 1923-1933 team also figured out the floor plan and architectural structure of others. It was partly through these stucco decorations that researchers identified the royal resident to be Bahram V (420-438 AD)—Sasanian kings had their distinctive crowns separately, and the unique crown pattern on stucco served as evidence to support this argument. In Kish, which once functioned as a transfer station between Ctesiphon and Hira, Bahram V built palaces for summer entertainment, which explains why one of the buildings has a huge water tank in the middle, probably functioning to cool down the court in summers. Around Bahram V’s palaces, a group of Sasanian people also took residence and developed a system of settlement and commercial activities.

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Rashidun period (AD c. 637 – c. 680)

Further information: Rashidun Caliphate

Ummayad period (AD c. 680 – c. 750)

Further information: Umayyad period

Abbasid period (AD c. 750 – c. 1258)

Further information: Abbasid period

This last incarnation of Kish prospered under Sasanian and then Islamic rule, before finally abandoned during the later years of the Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258).

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References

Sources

Bibliography

Journals

Further reading

External links

Geography

Language

• Black, Jeremy Allen; Baines, John Robert; Dahl, Jacob L.; Van De Mieroop, Marc. Cunningham, Graham; Ebeling, Jarle; Flückiger-Hawker, Esther; Robson, Eleanor; Taylor, Jon; Zólyomi, Gábor (eds.). "ETCSL: The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature". Faculty of Oriental Studies (revised ed.). United Kingdom. Retrieved 2022-09-23. The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature (ETCSL), a project of the University of Oxford, comprises a selection of nearly 400 literary compositions recorded on sources which come from ancient Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) and date to the late third and early second millennia BCE.
• Renn, Jürgen; Dahl, Jacob L.; Lafont, Bertrand; Pagé-Perron, Émilie (2022) [1998]. "CDLI: Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative" (published 1998–2022). Retrieved 2022-09-23. Images presented online by the research project Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative (CDLI) are for the non-commercial use of students, scholars, and the public. Support for the project has been generously provided by the Mellon Foundation, the National Science Foundation (NSF), the National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH), the Institute of Museum and Library Services (ILMS), and by the Max Planck Society (MPS), Oxford and University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA); network services are from UCLA's Center for Digital Humanities.
• Sjöberg, Åke Waldemar; Leichty, Erle; Tinney, Steve (2022) [2003]. "PSD: The Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary" (published 2003–2022). Retrieved 2022-09-23. The Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary Project (PSD) is carried out in the Babylonian Section of the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Anthropology and Archaeology. It is funded by the NEH and private contributions. [They] work with several other projects in the development of tools and corpora. [Two] of these have useful websites: the CDLI and the ETCSL.