Amongst the Iranian languages, the phonology of Pashto is of middle complexity, but its morphology is very complex.[1]
Consonants edit
Labial | Dental/ alveolar |
Post- alveolar |
Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Glottal | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nasal | m | n | ɳ | ŋ | ||||||||||||
Plosive | p | b | t | d | ʈ | ɖ | k | ɡ | (q) | |||||||
Affricate | t͡s | d͡z | t͡ʃ | d͡ʒ | ||||||||||||
Fricative | (f) | s | z | ʃ | ʒ | ʂ | ʐ | x | ɣ | h | ||||||
Approximant | l | ɽ | j | w | ||||||||||||
Rhotic | r |
The phonemes /q/, /f/ are only found in loanwords, and tend to be replaced by /k/, /p/ respectively. Some educated speakers may also have /ʔ, ʕ, ħ/ in Arabic loanwords.
- Voiceless stops and affricates /p, t, ʈ, t͡s, t͡ʃ, k/ are all unaspirated; they have slightly aspirated allophones prevocalically in a stressed syllable, almost like English.
- /ʂ, ʐ/ are heard as palatal fricatives [ç, ʝ] [3] in the Northwestern dialect.[4]
- /ɽ/ is a voiced retroflex flap most of the time, but tends to be a lateral flap [𝼈] at the beginning of a syllable or other prosodic unit, and a regular flap or approximant [ɻ] elsewhere.[5][6]
Dialects edit
Dialectal allophones represented by ښ and ږ. The retroflex variants [ʂ, ʐ] are used in the Southwest dialects whereas the post-alveolar variants [ʃ, ʒ] are used in Southeast Dialects. The palatal variants [ç, ʝ] are used in the Wardak and Central Ghilji dialects. In the North Eastern dialects ښ and ږ merge with the velar [x, g].
Phonotactics edit
Pashto syllable structure can be summarized as follows; parentheses enclose optional components:
- (C1 C2 (C3)) (S1) V (S2) (C4 (C5))
Pashto syllable structure consists of an optional syllable onset, consisting of one or two consonants; an obligatory syllable nucleus, consisting of a vowel optionally preceded by and/or followed by a semivowel; and an optional syllable coda, consisting of one or two consonants. The following restrictions apply:
- Onset
- First consonant (C1): Can be any consonant, including a liquid (/l, r/).
- Second consonant (C2): Can be any consonant.
- Third consonant (C3 ): Can be any consonant. (see #Consonant Clusters below)
- Nucleus
- Semivowel (S1)
- Vowel (V)
- Semivowel (S2)
- Coda
- First consonant (C4): Can be any consonant
- Second consonant (C5): Can be any consonant
Consonant clusters edit
Pashto has a lot of word-initial consonant clusters in all dialects; some hundred such clusters occurs. However, there is no consonant gemination.[7]
Examples | |
---|---|
Two Consonant Clusters | /tl/, /kl/, /bl/, /ɣl/, /lm/, /nm/, /lw/, /sw/, /br/, /tr/, /ɣr/, /pr/, /dr/, /wr/, /kɽ/, /mɽ/, /wɽ/ /xp/, /pʃ/, /pʂ/, /xr/, /zb/, /zɽ/, /ʒb/, /d͡zm/, /md͡z/, /t͡sk/, /sk/, /sp/, /ʃp/, /ʂk/, /xk/, /ʃk/, /kʃ/, /kx/, /kʂ/, /ml/, /gr/, /gm/ and /ʐm/ etc. |
Three Consonant Clusters | /sxw/, /xwɽ/, /xwl/, /nɣw/ etc. |
Examples edit
An edited[note 1] list from the book Pashto Phonology by M.K. Khan:[8]
IPA | Meaning | ||
---|---|---|---|
V | /o/ | was [dialect] | و |
VC | /as/ | horse | اس |
VCC | /art/ | loose | ارت |
CV | /tə/ | you | ته |
CVC | /ɖer/ | many, very | ډېر |
CVCC | /luŋd/ | wet | لوند |
CCV | /mlɑ/ | back | ملا |
CCVC | /klak/ | hard | کلک |
CCVCC | /ʒwəŋd/ | life | ژوند |
CCCV | /xwlə/ | mouth | خوله |
CCCVC | /ŋdror/ | sister-in-law | ندرور |
CCCVCC | /ʃxwand/ | chewing of food | شخوند |
Vowels edit
Most dialects in Pashto have seven vowels and seven diphthongs.[9]
Front | Central | Back | |
---|---|---|---|
Close | i | u | |
Mid | e | ə | o |
Open | a | ɑ |
Diphthongs edit
Front | Central | Back | |
---|---|---|---|
Close | uɪ | ||
Mid | əɪ | oɪ | |
Open | aɪ, aw | ɑi, ɑw |
Elfenbein notes that the long diphthongs [ɑi, ɑw] are always stressed, whilst the short diphthongs may or may not be stressed.[11]
Orthography of diphthongs edit
Initial | Medial | Final | |
---|---|---|---|
aɪ | ای | َيـ | َی |
əɪ | ۍ and ئ | ||
oɪ | اوی | ويـ | وی |
uɪ | اوی | ويـ | وی |
aw | او | َو | َو |
ɑi | آي | اي | ای |
ɑw | آو | او | او |
Stress edit
Pashto has phonemic variable stress,[12] unique amongst Iranian languages.[7]
For instance, in verbs to distinguish aspect:
Verb - Imperfective
(mostly Final Stress) |
Meaning | Verb - Perfective
(Initial Stress) |
Meaning |
---|---|---|---|
kenɑstə́ləm | I was sitting | kénɑstələm | I sat down |
kenɑstə́m | I was sitting | kénɑstəm | I sat down |
ba kenə́m | I shall be sitting | ba kénəm | I shall sit |
Basic Word Stress edit
Stress is indicated by the IPA stress marker [ˈ].
In general, the last syllable is stressed if the word ends in a consonant and the penultimate syllable is stressed if the last syllable ends in a vowel.[13] !
Example | IPA | Meaning |
---|---|---|
رنځور | /ran.ˈd͡zur/ | sick [adj. masc.] |
رنځوره | /ran.ˈd͡zur.a/ | sick [adj. fem.] |
کورونه | /ko.ˈru.na/ | houses [noun. masc. plural] |
ښځو | /ˈʂə.d͡zo/ | women [noun. fem. plural. oblique.] |
لاندې | /ˈlɑn.de/ | below [adverb, circumposition] |
Masculine Words ending in "ə" edit
These have final stress generally.[14]
Example | IPA | Meaning |
---|---|---|
تېره | /te.ˈrə/ | sharp [adjective] |
لېوه | /le.ˈwə/ | wolf [noun] |
Feminine Words ending in "o" edit
These end in a stress /o/.[15][16]
Example | IPA | Meaning |
---|---|---|
بيزو | /bi.ˈzo/ | monkey |
پيشو | /pi.ˈʃo/ | cat |
ورشو | /war.ˈʃo/ | meadow, pasture |
Wordings ending in Aleph edit
Words ending in IPA /ɑ/ i.e. ا are stressed in the last syllable.
Example | IPA | Meaning |
---|---|---|
اشنا | /aʃ.ˈnɑ/ | familiar [masc. noun] |
رڼا | /ra.ˈɳɑ/ | light [fem. noun] |
Exceptions edit
Word meanings also change upon stress.
Word | IPA: following general stress pattern [penultimate syllable] | Meaning 1 | IPA: following exception stress pattern | Meaning 2 |
---|---|---|---|---|
جوړه | /ˈd͡ʒo.ɽa/ | well | /d͡ʒo.ˈɽa/ | pair |
اسپه | /ˈas.pa/ | horse [mare] | /as.ˈpa/ | spotted fever |
Intonation edit
Questions edit
WH-Questions [who, where, when etc] follow a hat pattern of intonation: a rise in pitch followed by a fall in pitch.[17]
- تاسو چېرته کار کوئ
- [ tā́so ↗čérta kār kawə́ɪ↘ ]
Yes/No-Questions end in a high intonation: a rise in pitch.
- غنم يې ورېبل ؟
- [ ğanə́m ye wә́rebəl↗ ]
Contrastive Focus edit
When a word is contrasted with another word it carries a low then high pitch accent, followed by a sharp fall in pitch accent.
- نه له د نه کشر يم
- [ na↘ lə ↗də nə kə́shər yə́m↘ ]
Dialectal phonology edit
Consonants edit
This diagram is based on Anna Boyle's division of the dialect variations on geographic regions:[18]
Dialect | ښ | ږ | څ | ځ | ژ |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
South Western Dialects e.g. Kanadahar, Herat etc. | ʂ | ʐ | t͡s | d͡z | ʒ |
South Eastern Dialects e.g. Kasai Tribe, Quetta Region etc. | ʃ | ʒ | t͡s | d͡z | ʒ |
Middle Dialects - Waziri and Dzadrani | ɕ in Waziri ç in Dzadrani |
ʑ in Waziri ʝ in Dzadrani |
t͡s | d͡z | ʒ |
North Western Dialects e.g. Wardak, Central Ghilzai [19] | ç | ʝ | s | z | ʒ and z |
North Eastern Dialects e.g. Yusapzai, Peshawar dialect etc. | x | ɡ | s | z | d͡ʒ |
Regional Variation edit
This diagram however does not factor in the regional variations within the broad geographic areas. Compare the following consonant and vowel differences amongst regions categorised as Northern dialects:[19]
Northern Dialects | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Meaning | Wardak | Jalalabad | Bati Kot | |
دوی | they | deɪ | ˈduwi | ˈduwi |
راکړه | give [imperative of راکول] | ˈrɑ.ka | ˈrɑ.ka | ˈrɑ.kɽa |
پوهېدل | to know [infinitive] | pi.je.ˈdəl | po.je.ˈdəl | po.ji.ˈdəl |
شپږ | six | ʃpaʝ | ʃpag | ʃpiʒ |
وريځ | cloud | wər.ˈjed͡z | wrez | wə.ˈred͡z |
ښځه | woman | ˈçə.d͡za | ˈxə.za | |
اوبه | water | o.ˈbə | u.ˈbə | o.ˈbə |
Or the difference in vowels and diphthongs in North Eastern Pashto:
Meaning | Swat | Peshawar | |
---|---|---|---|
ودرېږه | stop [imperative of درېدل] | 'wə.dre.ga | ˈo.dre.ga |
جنۍ | girl | d͡ʒi.ˈnəɪ | d͡ʒi.ˈnɛ |
Alveolo-palatal fricative edit
Rozi Khan Burki claims that the Ormuri alveolo-palatal fricative /ɕ/ and /ʑ/ may also be present in Waziri.[20] But Pashto linguists such as Josef Elfenbein, Anna Boyle or Yousaf Khan Jazab have not noted this in Waziri Phonology.[21][22][23]
Vowels edit
Waziri vowels edit
Front | Central | Back | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Unrounded | Rounded | |||
Close | i | u | ||
Mid | ɛ | ə | œ | ɔ |
Near-Open | æ | |||
Open | a | ɒ |
The Vowel Shift edit
Corey Miller notes that the shift does not affect all words.[24]
In Waziri dialect the [ɑ] in Standard Pashto becomes [ɔː] in Northern Waziri and [ɒː] in Southern Waziri.[25]
Meaning | Standard Pashto | N.Wazirwola | S. Wazirwola | |
---|---|---|---|---|
ماسته | yougurt | /mɑs.ˈtə/ | /mɔːs.ˈtə/ | /mɒːs.ˈtə/ |
پاڼه | leaf | /pɑ.ˈɳa/ | /ˈpɔː.ɳjɛː/ | /ˈpɒː.ɳjɛː/ |
In Waziri dialect the stressed [o] in Standard Pashto becomes [œː] and [ɛː]. The [o] in Standard Pashto may also become [jɛ] or [wɛː]. [25]
Meaning | Standard Pashto | Wazirwola | |
---|---|---|---|
لور | sickle | /lor/ | /lœːr/ |
وړه | flour | /o.ˈɽə/ | /ɛː.ˈɽə/ |
اوږه | shoulder | /o.ˈɡa/ | /jɛ.ˈʒa/ |
اوس | now | /os/ | /wɛːs/ |
In Waziri dialect the stressed [u] in standard Pashto becomes [iː]. [26]
Meaning | Standard Pashto | Wazirwola | |
---|---|---|---|
موږ | we | /muɡ/ | /miːʒ/ |
نوم | navel | /num/ | /niːm/ |
When [u] in begins a word in standard Pashto can become [jiː] or [w[ɛ]]
Meaning | Standard Pashto | Wazirwola | |
---|---|---|---|
اوم | raw | /um/ | /jiːm/ |
اوږه | garlic | /ˈu.ɡa/ | /ˈjiː.ʒa/ |
اوده | asleep | /u.ˈdə/ | /wɜ.ˈdə/ |
Elfenbein also notes the presence of the near-open vowel [æ].[27]
Apridi vowels edit
Apridi has the additional close-mid central rounded vowel /ɵ/.[28]
Diphthongs in dialects edit
The diphthongs varies according to dialect.[29]
Standard Pronunciation | Apridi | Yusupzai[30] | Waziri | Mohmand | Baniswola/Bannuchi[31] | Wanetsi |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
aɪ | ʌɪ ʌː |
e | aɪ | ɑ | a | |
ˈaɪ | ˈaɪ | ˈe | æɪ | ˈɑːi | ˈa | |
ˈəɪ | ˈije | ˈəɪ | ˈəɪ
ˈe[32] |
ˈije | ˈi | |
oɪ | waɪ | we | oːi œːi |
eːi | ||
uɪ | ui, wi | ˈojə | i | |||
aw | ao | ow, aːw | ||||
ɑi | ɑe | ˈɑːi | ||||
ɑw | ɑo | oːw |
Yousaf Khan Jazab notes that the diphthong /əɪ/ becomes /oi/ in the Khattak Dialect in the verbal suffix /ئ/,[33] but it remains as the diphthong /əɪ/ in the nominal/adjectival /ۍ/ example: مړۍ /ma.ˈɽəɪ/ "meal".[34]
Nasalisation of vowels edit
As noted by Yousaf Khan Jazab, the Marwat dialect and the Bansiwola dialect have nasalised vowels also.[35] It is also noted in the Waṇetsi/Tarin dialect.
These are indicated by the diactric mark / ̃ /.
Standard Pronunciation | Marwat | Meaning | |
---|---|---|---|
بوی
buɪ |
بویں buĩ |
Smell |
Notes edit
- ^ With some corrected IPA for words mentioned therein . Sources of correction: Kaye (1997), Zeeya Pashtoon (2009) and Qamosona.com
References edit
- ^ Elfenbein (1997), p. 736.
- ^ Tegey & Robson (1996), p. 15.
- ^ David (2014), p. 9.
- ^ David (2014), p. 35.
- ^ D.N. MacKenzie, 1990, "Pashto", in Bernard Comrie, ed, The major languages of South Asia, the Middle East and Africa, p. 103
- ^ Herbert Penzl, 1965, A reader of Pashto, p 7
- ^ a b Elfenbein (1997), p. 737.
- ^ Khan, Muhammad Kamal (2020-04-08). Pashto Phonology: An Evaluation of the Relationship between Syllable Structure and Word Order. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 56–57. ISBN 978-1-5275-4925-8.
- ^ David (2014), p. 11.
- ^ Tegey & Robson (1996), p. 17.
- ^ Elfenbein (1997), p. 751.
- ^ Bečka, Jiří (1969). A Study in Pashto Stress. Academia.
- ^ Tegey & Robson (1996), p. 25.
- ^ David, Anne Boyle (2015-06-16). Descriptive Grammar of Bangla (in German). Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. pp. 56 and 109. ISBN 978-1-5015-0083-1.
- ^ Tegey & Robson (1996), p. 56.
- ^ David (2014), p. 68.
- ^ "Pashto Intonation Patterns". Interspeech 2017.
- ^ David (2014), pp. 31–34.
- ^ a b Coyle 2014.
- ^ "Dying Languages: Special Focus on Ormuri". Pakistan Journal of Public Administration. 6. No. 2. December 2001. Archived from the original on September 3, 2012.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) - ^ Elfenbein (1997), pp. 740–749.
- ^ David (2014), pp. 37–40.
- ^ Jazab (2017), pp. 69–70.
- ^ Miller, Corey (2014-05-12). "The Waziri Chain Shift". Journal of Persianate Studies. 7 (1): 125. doi:10.1163/18747167-12341267. ISSN 1874-7167.
- ^ a b Elfenbein (1997), p. 748.
- ^ Elfenbein (1997), p. 749.
- ^ Elfenbein (1997), p. 746.
- ^ Elfenbein (1997), pp. 740, 750–751.
- ^ Elfenbein (1997), pp. 751–753.
- ^ Rensch, Calvin Ross (1992). Sociolinguistic Survey of Northern Pakistan: Pashto, Waneci, Ormuri. National Institute of Pakistan Studies, Quaid-i-Azam University. pp. 79–146.
- ^ Jazab (2017), pp. 64–65.
- ^ Jazab (2020), p. 189.
- ^ Jazab (2020), pp. 187–188.
- ^ Jazab (2017), p. 65.
- ^ Jazab (2017), pp. 60–61.
Bibliography edit
- Coyle, Dennis (2014-01-01). Placing Wardak Among Pashto Varieties (MA). University of North Dakota.
- David, Anne Boyle (2014). Descriptive Grammar of Pashto and Its Dialects. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-1-61451-303-2.
- Elfenbein, Josef (1997). "Pashto Phonology". In Kaye, Alan S. (ed.). Phonologies of Asia and Africa: Including the Caucasus. Eisenbrauns. pp. 733–760. ISBN 978-1-57506-019-4.
- Jazab, Yousaf Khan (2017). An Ethno-Linguistic Study of the Karlanri Varieties of Pashto. Pashto Academy, University of Peshawar. pp. 69–70. ISBN 9789694181004. OCLC 1001287442.
- Jazab, Yousaf Khan (2020-09-19). "A Diphthong Related Issue in Pashto Script and Its Solution". Pashto. 49 (659). ISSN 0555-8158.
- Tegey, Habibullah; Robson, Barbara (1996). A Reference Grammar of Pashto (PDF). Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Linguistics.