User:Taiwantaffy/POJ

Pe̍h-ōe-jī Church Romanization
Script type	latin alphabet (modified)
Creator	Walter Henry Medhurst Elihu Doty John Van Nest Talmage
Time period	1830s–present
Languages	Southern Min Amoy Taiwanese
Related scripts
Child systems	TLPA Tai-lo

Pe̍h-ōe-jī (pronounced [peʔ˩ ue˩ ʑi˨]; abbreviated to POJ; literally vernacular writing; also known as Church Romanization) is an orthography used to write variants of the Chinese Southern Min language/dialect, particularly Taiwanese and Amoy Hokkien. Developed by Western missionaries working among the Chinese diaspora in Southeast Asia in the nineteenth century and refined by missionaries working in Xiamen and Tainan, it uses a modified latin alphabet together with some diacritics to represent the spoken language. After initial success in Fujian, POJ became most widespread in Taiwan, and in the mid-twentieth century there were over 100,000 people literate in POJ. A large amount of printed material, religious and secular, has been produced in the script, including Taiwan's first newspaper, the Taiwan Church News.

The orthography was suppressed during the Japanese era in Taiwan, and faced further countermeasures during the Kuomintang martial law period. In Fujian use declined after the establishment of the People's Republic of China and today the system is not in general use there. Use of Pe̍h-ōe-jī is now restricted to some Taiwanese Christians, non-native learners of the language, and native-speaker enthusiasts in Taiwan. Full native computer support arrived in 2004, and users can now call on fonts, input methods, and extensive online dictionaries. Rival writing systems have been developed over time, and there ongoing debate within the Taiwanese mother tongue movement as to which system should be used. Versions of Pe̍h-ōe-jī have been devised for other languages, including Hakka, Gan, Teochew, and Min Dong.

Name

Taiwantaffy/POJ
Traditional Chinese	白話字
Simplified Chinese	白话字
Hokkien POJ	Pe̍h-ōe-jī
Literal meaning	Vernacular writing
Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Báihuà zì Hakka Romanization Pha̍k-fa-sṳ Southern Min Hokkien POJ Pe̍h-ōe-jī Teochew Peng'im Pêh-uē-jī Eastern Min Fuzhou BUC Bàng-uâ-cê

The name Pe̍h-ōe-jī (simplified Chinese: 白话字; traditional Chinese: 白話字) literally means vernacular writing, i.e. written characters (Chinese: 字; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: jī) representing everyday spoken language (simplified Chinese: 白话; traditional Chinese: 白話; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: pe̍h-ōe). Though the name vernacular writing could be applied to many kinds of writing, romanised and character-based, the term Pe̍h-ōe-jī is commonly restricted to the Southern Min romanization system developed by Presbyterian missionaries in the nineteenth century. The missionaries who invented and refined the system didn't use the term Pe̍h-ōe-jī, however, instead using various names such as Romanised Amoy Vernacular and Romanised Amoy Colloquial. The origins of the system and its extensive use in the Christian community has led to it being known by some modern-day writers as Church Romanization (simplified Chinese: 教会罗马字; traditional Chinese: 教會羅馬字; pinyin: Jiàohuì Luōmǎzì; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Kàu-hōe Lô-má-jī; often abbreviated to 教罗/教羅). There is some debate as to whether Pe̍h-ōe-jī or Church Romanization is the more appropriate name. Objections raised to Pe̍h-ōe-jī include that the surface meaning of the word itself is more generic than one specific system, and that both literary and colloquial register Southern Min appear in the system (meaning that describing it as vernacular writing might be inaccurate). Opposition to the name Church Romanization is based on the identification with the church, as the writing is used by a wider community than just Christians, and for secular as well as sacred writing. One commentator observes that POJ "today is largely disassociated from its former religious purposes". The term "romanization" is also disliked by some, as the word connotes a supplementary phonetic system rather than an orthography. Sources disagree on which represents the more commonly used name of the two.

History

Pe̍h-ōe-jī inscription at a church in Tâi-lâm commemorating Thomas Barclay.

The history of Peh-oe-ji has been heavily influenced by official attitudes towards the Southern Min vernaculars and the Christian organisations who propagated it. Early documents point to the purpose of the creation of POJ as being pedagogical in nature, closely allied to educating Christian converts.

Early development

The first people to use a romanized script to write Southern Min were Spanish missionaries in Manila in the sixteenth century. However, it was used mainly as a teaching aid for Spanish learners of the language, and seems not to have had any influence on the development of Pe̍h-ōe-jī. In the early nineteenth century, China was closed to Christian missionaries, who instead proselytized to overseas Chinese communities in South East Asia. The earliest origins of the system are found in a small vocabulary first printed in 1820 by Walter Henry Medhurst, who went on to publish the Dictionary of the Hok-këèn Dialect of the Chinese Language, According to the Reading and Colloquial Idioms in 1832. This dictionary represents the first major reference work in POJ, although the romanization within was quite different from the modern system, and has been dubbed Early Church Romanization by one scholar of the subject. Medhurst, who was stationed in Malacca, was influenced by Robert Morrison's romanization of Mandarin Chinese, but had to innovate in several areas to reflect major differences between Mandarin and Southern Min. Several important developments occurred in Medhurst's work, with the most crucial being consistent tone markings (influenced by contemporary linguistic studies of Sanskrit, which was becoming of more mainstream interest to Western scholars). Medhurst was convinced that accurate representation and reproduction of the tonal structure of Hokkien was vital to comprehension:

Respecting these tones of the Chinese language, some difference of opinion has been obtained, and while some have considered them of first importance, others have paid them little or no intention. The author inclines decidedly to the former opinion; having found, from uniform experience, that without strict attention to tones, it is impossible for a person to make himself understood in Hok-këèn.

— W.H. Medhurst

John Van Nest Talmage, often (wrongly) considered the "father of Pe̍h-ōe-jī".

The system expounded by Medhurst had some influence on later dictionary compilers with regards to tonal notation and initials, but both his complicated vowel system and his emphasis on the literary register of Southern Min were dropped by later writers. Following on from Medhurst's work, Samuel Wells Williams became the chief proponent of major changes in the orthography devised by Morrison and adapted by Medhurst. Through personal communication and letters and articles printed in The Chinese Repository a consensus was arrived at for the new version of POJ, although Williams' suggestions were largely not followed. The first major work to represent this new orthography was Elihu Doty's Anglo-Chinese Manual with Romanized Colloquial in the Amoy Dialect, published in 1853, which can be therefore regarded as the first presentation of a pre-modern POJ, a significant step onwards from Medhurst's orthography and different from today's system in only a few details. From this point on various authors tinkered with some of the consonants and vowels, but the system of tone marks from Doty's Manual survives intact in modern POJ. John Van Nest Talmage has traditionally been regarded as the founder of POJ among the community which uses the orthography, although it now seems that he was an early promoter of the system, rather than its inventor. In 1842 the Treaty of Nanking was concluded, which included among its provisions the creation of treaty ports, in which Christian missionaries would be free to preach. Xiamen (then known as Amoy) was one of these treaty ports, and British, Canadian and American missionaries moved in to start proselytizing. These missionaries, housed in the cantonment of Gulangyu, created reference works and religious tracts, including a bible translation. Naturally, they based the pronunciation of their romanization on the speech of Xiamen, which became the de facto standard when they eventually moved into other areas of the Hokkien sprachbund, most notably Taiwan. The 1858 Treaty of Tianjin officially opened Taiwan to western missionaries, and Missionary Societies were quick to send men to work in the field, usually after a sojourn in Xiamen to acquire the rudiments of the language.

Maturity

Quanzhou and Zhangzhou are two major varieties of Southern Min, and in Xiamen they combined to form something "not Quan, not Zhang" - i.e. not one or the other, but rather a fusion, which became known as Amoy Dialect or Amoy Chinese. In Taiwan, with its mixture of migrants from both Quanzhou and Zhangzhou, the linguistic situation was similar, although the resulting blend in the southern city of Tainan was different to the Xiamen blend, it was close enough that the missionaries could ignore the differences and import their system wholesale. The fact that religious tracts, dictionaries, and teaching guides already existed in the Xiamen tongue meant that the missionaries in Taiwan could begin proselytizing immediately, without the intervening time needed to write those materials.

Scotsman Thomas Barclay, influential promoter of POJ.

Missionary opinion was divided on whether POJ was desirable as an end in itself as a fully-fledged orthography, or as a means to literacy in Chinese characters. William Campbell described POJ as a step on the road to reading and writing Hanzi, claiming that to promote it as an independent writing system would inflame nationalist passions in China, where Hanzi were considered a sacred part of Chinese culture. Taking the other side, Thomas Barclay believed that literacy in POJ should be a goal rather than a waypoint:

The front page of the first edition of the Taiwan Prefectural City Church News, later renamed the Taiwan Church News.

Soon after my arrival in Formosa I became firmly convinced of three things, and more than fifty years experience has strengthened my conviction. The first was that if you are to have a healthy, living Church it is necessary that all the members, men and women, read the Scriptures for themselves; second, that this end can never be attained by the use of the Chinese character; third, that it can be attained by the use of the alphabetic script, this Romanised Vernacular.

— Thomas Barclay

A great boon to the promotion of POJ in Taiwan came in 1880 when James Laidlaw Maxwell, a medical missionary based in Tainan, donated a small printing press to the local church, which Thomas Barclay learned how to operate in 1881 before founding the Presbyterian Church Press in 1884. Subsequently the Taiwan Prefectural City Church News, which first appeared in 1885 and was produced by Barclay's Presbyterian Church of Taiwan Press, became the first printed newspaper in Taiwan.

Khó-sioh lín pún-kok ê jī chin oh, chió chió lâng khòaⁿ ē hiáu-tit. Só͘-í góan ū siat pa̍t-mih ê hoat-tō͘, ēng pe̍h-ōe-jī lâi ìn-chheh, hō͘ lín chèng-lâng khòaⁿ khah khòai bat... Lâng m̄-thang phah-sǹg in-ūi i bat Khóng-chú-jī só͘-í m̄-bián o̍h chit-hō ê jī; iā m̄-thang khòaⁿ-khin i, kóng sī gín-á só͘-tha̍k--ê. Because the characters in your country are so difficult only a few people are literate. Therefore we have striven to print books in Pe̍h-ōe-jī to help you to read... don't think that if you know Chinese characters you needn't learn this script, nor should you regard it as a childish thing.

— Thomas Barclay, Tâi-oân-hú-siâⁿ Kàu-hōe-pò, Issue 1

Ernest Tipson's 1934 pocket dictionary was the first reference work to reflect the modern orthography used in Pe̍h-ōe-jī. Between Medhurst's dictionary of 1832 and the standardisation of POJ in Tipson's time, there were a number of works published, which can be used to chart the change over time of Pe̍h-ōe-jī:

Evolution of Pe̍h-ōe-jī, 1832–1934

IPA	Medhurst 1832	Doty 1853	MacGowan 1869	Douglas 1873	Van Nest Talmage 1894	Warnshuis & De Pree 1911	Campbell 1913	Barclay 1923	Tipson 1934
tɕ	ch	ch	ts	ch	ch	ch	ch	ch	ch
ts	ch	ch	ts	ts	ch	ch	ts	ts	ch
ŋ	gn	ng	ng	ng	ng	ng	ng	ng	ng
ɪɛn/ɛn	ëen	ian	ien	ien	ian	ian	ian	ian	ian
iat̚	ëet	iat	iet	iet	iat	iat	iat	iet	iat
ɪk	ek	iek	ek	ek	ek	ek	ek	ek	ek
iŋ	eng	ieng	eng	eng	eng	eng	eng	eng	eng
ɔ	oe	o͘	o͘	ɵ͘	o͘	o͘	o͘	o͘	o͘
ʰ	’h	’	h	h	h	h	h	h	h

Taiwanese kana used as ruby characters.

The Japanese government introduced Taiwanese kana during the colonial era in Taiwan (1895–1945), with the system designed as a teaching aid and pronunciation guide, rather than an independent orthography like POJ. From the 1930s onwards, with the increasing militarization of Japan and the Kōminka movement encouraging Taiwanese people to "Japanize", there were a raft of measures taken against native languages, including Taiwanese. While these moves resulted in a supression of POJ, they were "a logical consequence of increasing the amount of education in Japanese, rather than an explicit attempt to ban a particular Taiwanese orthography in favor of [Taiwanese kana]". The Second Sino-Japanese War beginning in 1937 brought stricter measures into force, and along with the outlawing of romanized Taiwanese, various publications were prohibited and Confucian-style syobō (Chinese: 書房; pinyin: shūfáng; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: su-pâng) – private schools which taught Classical Chinese with literary Southern Min pronunciation – were closed down in 1939. The Japanese authorities came to perceive POJ as an obstacle to Japanization and also suspected that POJ was being used to hide "concealed codes and secret revolutionary messages". In the climate of the ongoing war the government banned the Taiwan Church News in 1942 as it was written in POJ.

Post-World War II

Initially the Kuomintang government in Taiwan had a liberal attitude towards "local dialects" (i.e. non-Mandarin varieties of Chinese). The Mandarin Promotion Council produced booklets outlining versions of Mandarin Phonetic Symbols ("Bopomofo") for writing the Taiwanese tongue, these being intended for newly arrived government officials from outside Taiwan as well as local Taiwanese. The first government action against native languages came in 1953, when the use of Taiwanese or Japanese for instruction was forbidden. The next move to suppress the movement came in 1955, when the use of POJ for proselytizing was outlawed in 1955. At that point in time there were 115,000 people literate in POJ in Taiwan, Fujian, and southeast Asia. Two years later, missionaries were banned from using romanised bibles, and the use of "native languages" (i.e. Taiwanese, Hakka, and the aboriginal languages became illegal. The ban on POJ bibles was overturned in 1959, but churches were "encouraged" to use character bibles instead. Government activities against POJ intensified in the late 1960s and early 1970s, with several publications being banned or seized in an effort to prevent the spread of the romanization. In 1964 use of Taiwanese in schools or official settings was forbidden, and transgression in schools punished with beatings, fines and humiliation. The Taiwan Church News (printed in POJ) was banned in 1969, and only allowed to return a year later when the publishers agreed to print it in Chinese characters. In 1974 Bernard L.M. Embree's A Dictionary of Southern Min was banned by the Government Information Office, with a government official saying: "We have no objection to the dictionary being used by foreigners. They could use it in mimeographed form. But we don't want it published as a book and sold publicly because of the Romanization it contains. Chinese should not be learning Chinese through Romanization." Also in the 1970s, a POJ New Testament translation known as the "Red Cover Bible" was confiscated and banned by the Nationalist regime. Official moves against native languages continued into the 1980s, with the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of the Interior deciding in 1984 to forbid missionaries to use "local dialects" and romanizations in their work.

With the ending of martial law in 1987, the restrictions on "local languages" were quietly lifted, resulting in growing interest in Taiwanese writing during the 1990s. For the first time since the 1950s, Taiwanese language and literature was discussed and debated openly in newspapers and journals. There was also support from the then opposition party, the Democratic Progressive Party, for writing in the language. From a total of 26 documented orthographies for Taiwanese in 1987 (including defunct systems), there were a further 38 invented from 1987 to 1999, including 30 different romanizations, six adaptations of Zhuyin fuhao and two Hangul-like systems. Some commentators believe that the Kuomintang, while steering clear of outright banning of the native language movements after the end of martial law, took a "divide and conquer" approach by promoting TLPA, an alternative to POJ, which was at the time the choice of the majority inside the nativization movement. Native language education remains a fiercely debated topic in Taiwan to this day, and is the subject of much political wrangling.

Current system

See also: Comparison of Hokkien writing systems

Initials POJ b ch chh g h j k kh l m n ng p ph s t th IPA b ts tɕ tsʰ tɕʰ g h dz ʑ k kʰ d̠ l m n ŋ p pʰ s ɕ t tʰ Monophthongs POJ a e i o o͘ u aⁿ eⁿ iⁿ oⁿ o͘ⁿ uⁿ IPA a e i o ɔ u ã ẽ ĩ õ ɔ̃ ũ Diphthongs & Triphthongs POJ ai au ia iu io oa oe ui iau oai IPA aɪ aʊ ɪa iu ɪo ua ue ui ɪaʊ uai Coda endings POJ m n ng h p t k IPA m n ŋ ʔ p̚ t̚ k̚

The current system of Pe̍h-ōe-jī has been stable since the 1930s, with a few minor exceptions (detailed below). There is a fair degree of similarity with the Vietnamese orthography Quốc Ngữ, including the b/p/ph distinction and the use of ⟨ơ⟩ in Quốc Ngữ compared with ⟨o͘⟩ in POJ. POJ uses the following letters and combinations:

a b ch chh e g h i j k kh l m n ⁿ ng o o͘ p ph s t th u

Chinese phonology traditionally divides syllables in Chinese languages into three parts; firstly the initial, a consonant or consonant blend which appears at the beginning of the syllable, secondly the final, consisting of a medial vowel (optional), a nucleus vowel, and an optional ending; and finally the tone, which is applied to the whole syllable. In terms of the non-tonal (i.e. phonemic) features, the nucleus vowel is the only required part of a licit consonant in Chinese languages. Unlike Mandarin but like other southern varieties of Chinese, Taiwanese has final unreleased stops, a feature which has been preserved from Middle Chinese. There is some debate as to whether these stops are a tonal feature or a phonemic one, with some authorities distinguishing between ⟨-h⟩ as a tonal feature, and ⟨-p⟩, ⟨-t⟩, and ⟨-k⟩ as phonemic features. Southern Min dialects also have an optional nasal property, which is written with a superscript ⟨ⁿ⟩ and usually identified as being part of the vowel.

A legitimate syllable in Hokkien takes the form (initial) + (medial vowel) + nucleus + (stop) + tone, where items in parenthesis indicate optional components.

The initials are:

b ch chh g h j k kh l m n ng

Medial vowels:

i o

Nuclei:

a e i o o͘ u m ng

Stops:

m n ng h p t k

POJ has a limited amount of legitimate syllables, although sources disagree on some particular instances of these syllables. The following table contains all the licit spellings of POJ syllables, based on a number of sources:

Licit POJ syllables
b ch chh g h j k kh l m n ng p ph s t th a ba cha chha ga ha ka kha la ma na nga pa pha sa ta tha aⁿ chaⁿ chhaⁿ haⁿ kaⁿ khaⁿ phaⁿ saⁿ taⁿ thaⁿ ah bah chah chahh hah kah khah lah nah pah phah sah tah thah hahⁿ sahⁿ ai bai chai chhai gai hai kai khai lai mai nai ngai pai phai sai tai thai aiⁿ chaiⁿ haiⁿ kaiⁿ khaiⁿ phaiⁿ taiⁿ ak bak chak chhak gak hak kak khak lak pak phak sak tak thak am cham chham gam ham kam kham lam sam tam tham an ban chan chhan gan han kan khan lan pan phan san tan than ang bang chang chhang gang hang kang khang lang pang phang sang tang thang ap chap chhap hap kap khap lap sap tap thap at bat chat chhat hat kat khat lat pat sat tat that au bau chau chhau gau hau kau khau lau mau nau ngau pau phau sau tau thau chhauh kauh lauh mauh nauh phauh tauh e be che chhe ge he ke khe le me ne nge pe phe se te the eⁿ cheⁿ chheⁿ heⁿ keⁿ kheⁿ peⁿ pheⁿ seⁿ teⁿ theⁿ eh beh cheh chheh heh keh kheh leh meh neh ngeh peh seh teh theh hehⁿ khehⁿ ek bek chek chhek gek hek kek lek pek phek sek tek thek eng beng cheng chheng geng heng keng kheng leng peng pheng seng teng theng i bi chi chhi gi hi ji ki khi li mi ni pi phi si ti thi iⁿ chiⁿ chhiⁿ hiⁿ kiⁿ khiⁿ siⁿ tiⁿ thiⁿ ia chia chhia gia hia jia kia khia mia nia ngia sia tia iaⁿ chiaⁿ chhiaⁿ hiaⁿ kiaⁿ piaⁿ siaⁿ tiaⁿ thiaⁿ iah chiah chhiah giah hiah kiah khiah liah piah phiah siah tiah thiah hiahⁿ chhiak khiak piak phiak siak tiak iam chiam chhiam giam hiam jiam kiam khiam liam siam tiam thiam ian bian chian chhian gian hian jian kian khian lian pian phian sian tian thian iang chiang chhiang giang hiang jiang khiang liang piang phiang siang iap chiap chhiap giap hiap jiap kiap khiap liap siap tiap thiap iat biat chiat chhiat giat hiat jiat kiat khiat liat piat phiat siat tiat thiat iau biau chiau chhiau giau hiau jiau kiau khiau liau miau niau ngiau piau phiau siau tiau thiau iauⁿ hiauh khiauh ngiauh bih chih chhih khih mih nih pih phih sih tih thih im chim chhim gim him jim kim khim lim sim tim thim in bin chin chhin gin hin jin kin khin lin pin phin sin tin thin io bio chio chhio gio hio jio kio khio lio pio phio sio tio thio ioh chioh chhioh gioh hioh kioh khioh lioh sioh tioh iok chiok chhiok giok hiok jiok kiok khiok liok siok tiok thiok iong chiong chhiong giong hiong jiong kiong khiong liong siong tiong thiong ip chip chhip hip jip kip khip lip sip it bit chit chhit hit jit kit khit pit phit sit tit iu biu chiu chhiu giu hiu jiu kiu khiu liu niu piu siu tiu thiu iuⁿ chiuⁿ chhiuⁿ hiuⁿ kiuⁿ khiuⁿ siuⁿ tiuⁿ iuhⁿ hiuhⁿ m hm hmh ng chng chhng hng kng khng mng nng png sng tng thng chhngh hngh phngh sngh o bo cho chho go ho ko kho lo po pho so to tho oⁿ hoⁿ koⁿ o͘ bo͘ cho͘ chho͘ go͘ ho͘ ko͘ kho͘ lo͘ mo͘ no͘ ngo͘ po͘ pho͘ so͘ to͘ tho͘ oa boa choa chhoa goa hoa koa khoa loa moa noa poa phoa soa toa thoa oaⁿ chhoaⁿ hoaⁿ koaⁿ khoaⁿ poaⁿ phoaⁿ soaⁿ toaⁿ thoaⁿ oah boah choah chhoah hoah joah koah khoah loah poah phoah soah thoah oai hoai koai khoai soai oaiⁿ choaiⁿ hoaiⁿ koaiⁿ soaiⁿ oan boan choan chhoan goan hoan koan khoan loan poan phoan soan toan thoan oang chhoang oat boat choat goat hoat koat khoat loat poat phoat soat toat thoat oe boe choe chhoe goe hoe joe koe khoe loe poe phoe soe toe oeh boeh goeh hoeh koeh khoeh poeh phoeh soeh oh choh chhoh hoh koh loh poh phoh soh toh thoh mo͘h ohⁿ hohⁿ ok bok chok chhok gok hok kok khok lok pok phok sok tok thok om som tom ong bong chong chhong gong hong kong khong long pong phong song tong thong u bu chu chhu gu hu ju ku khu lu pu phu su tu thu uh chuh chhuh khuh puh phuh tuh thuh ui bui chui chhui gui hui kui khui lui mui pui phui sui tui thui un bun chun chhun gun hun jun kun khun lun pun phun sun tun thun ut but chut chhut hut kut khut lut put phut sut tut thut
Sources: Campbell, Embree, Kì.

Tone markings

Number	Diacritic	Chinese tone name	Example listenⓘ
1	none	yinping dark level	kha foot; leg
2	acute	shangsheng rising	chúi water
3	grave	yinqu dark departing	kàu arrive
4	none	yinru dark entering	bah meat
5	circumflex	yangping light level	ông king
7	macron	yangqu light departing	tiōng middle
8	vertical line above	yangru light entering	jo̍ah hot

In standard Amoy or Taiwanese Hokkien there are seven distinct tones, which by convention are numbered 1–8, with number 6 omitted (tone 6 used to be a distinct tone, but has long since merged with tone 2). Tones 1 and 4 are both represented without a diacritic, and can be distinguished from each other by the syllable ending, which is a vowel, ⟨-n⟩, ⟨-m⟩, or ⟨-ng⟩ for tone 1, and ⟨-h⟩, ⟨-k⟩, ⟨-p⟩, and ⟨-t⟩ for tone 4.

The five tone markings used in Pe̍h-ōe-jī, representing tones 2, 3, 5, 7, and 8

Hokkien languages undergo considerable tone sandhi, i.e. changes to the tone depending on the position of the syllable in any given sentence or utterance. However, like Hanyu Pinyin for Mandarin Chinese, POJ always marks the citation tone (i.e. the original, pre-sandhi tone) rather than the tone which is actually spoken. This means that when reading aloud the reader must adjust the tone markings on the page to account for sandhi. Some textbooks for learners of the language mark both the citation tone and the sandhi tone to assist the learner.

There is some debate as to the correct placement of tone marks in the case of diphthongs and triphthongs, particularly those which include <oa> and <oe>. Most modern writers follow the following six rules:

1. If the syllable has one vowel, that vowel should be tone-marked; viz. ⟨tī⟩, ⟨láng⟩, ⟨chhu̍t⟩
2. If a diphthong contains ⟨i⟩ or ⟨u⟩>, the tone mark goes above the other vowel; viz. ⟨ia̍h⟩, ⟨kiò⟩, ⟨táu⟩
3. If a diphthong includes both ⟨i⟩ and ⟨u⟩, mark the ⟨u⟩; viz. ⟨iû⟩, ⟨ùi⟩
4. If the final is made up of three or more letters, mark the second vowel (except when rules 2 and 3 apply); viz. ⟨goán⟩, ⟨oāi⟩, ⟨khiáu⟩
5. If ⟨o⟩ occurs with ⟨a⟩ or ⟨e⟩, mark the ⟨o >; viz. ⟨òa⟩, ⟨thóe⟩
6. If the syllable has no vowel, mark the nasal consonant; viz. ⟨m̄⟩, ⟨ǹg⟩, ⟨mn̂g⟩

Hyphens

A single hyphen is used to indicated a compound. What constitutes a compound is controversial, with some authors equating it to a "word" in English, and others not willing to limit it to the English concept of a word. Examples from POJ include ⟨sì-cha̍p⟩ "forty", ⟨bé-hì-thôan⟩ "circus", and ⟨hôe-ho̍k⟩ "recover (from illness)". The rule-based sandhi behaviour of tones in compounds has not yet been clearly defined by linguists. A double hyphen is used when POJ is deployed as a full orthography (rather than as a transciption system) to indicate that the following syllable should be pronounced in the neutral tone. It also marks to the reader that the preceding syllable does not undergo tone sandhi, as it would were the following syllable non-neutral. Morphemes following a double hyphen are often (but not always) grammatical function words.

Audio examples

POJ	Translation	Audio File
Sian-siⁿ kóng, ha̍k-seng tiām-tiām thiaⁿ.	A sensei speaks, students quietly listen.	listenⓘ
Kin-á-jit hit-ê cha-bó· gín-á lâi góan tau khòaⁿ góa.	Today that girl came to my house to see me.	listenⓘ
Thài-khong pêng-iú, lín-hó. Lín chia̍h-pá--bē? Ū-êng, to̍h lâi gún chia chē--ȯ̂!	Everyone, what's up? Have you eaten yet? When you have the time, come on over to eat.	Listen (from NASA Voyager)

Regional differences

In addition to the standard syllables detailed above, there are several regional variations of Hokkien speech which can be represented with non-standard spellings. In Zhangzhou and parts of Taiwan which are closely related to the Zhangzhou dialect (particularly the northwest around Yilan), the final ng is replaced with uiⁿ, for example in "egg" (nuiⁿ) and "cooked rice" (puiⁿ).

Texts

Goân-khí-thâu Siōng-tè chhòng-chō thiⁿ kap tōe. Tōe sī khang-khang hūn-tūn; chhim-ian ê bin-chiūⁿ o͘-àm; Siōng-tè ê Sîn ūn-tōng tī chúi-bīn. Siōng-tè kóng, Tio̍h ū kng, chiū ū kng. Siōng-tè khòaⁿ kng, sī hó; Siōng-tè chiong kng àm pun-khui. Siōng-tè kiò hit ê kng chòe Ji̍t, kiò àm chòe Mî. Ū ê-hng ū chá-khí sī thâu chi̍t-ji̍t.

Genesis 1:1–5

Due to POJ's origins in the church, much of the material in the script is religious in nature, including several Bible translations, books of hymns, and guides to morality. The Tainan Church Press, established in 1884, has been printing POJ materials ever since, with periods of quiet when POJ was suppressed in the early 1940s and from around 1955 to 1987. In the period to 1955, over 2.3 million volumes of POJ books were printed, and one study in 2002 catalogued 840 different POJ texts in existence. Besides a Southern Min version of Wikipedia in the orthography, there are teaching materials, religious texts, and books about linguistics, medicine and geography.

• Lán ê Kiù-chú Iâ-sȯ Ki-tok ê Sin-iok (1873 translation of the New Testament)
• Lāi-goā-kho Khàn-hō͘-ha̍k
• Amoy-English Dictionary
• Lear Ong (translation of King Lear)

Computing

POJ was initially not well supported by word-processing applications due to the special diacritics needed to write it. Support has now improved and there are now sufficient resources to both enter and display POJ correctly. Several input methods exist to enter Unicode-compliant POJ, including OpenVanilla (Mac OS X and Windows), the cross-platform Tai-lo Input Method released by the Taiwanese Ministry of Education, and the Firefox add-on Transliterator, which allows in-browser POJ input. When POJ was first used in word-processing applications it was not fully supported by the Unicode standard, thus necessitating work-arounds. One employed was encoding the necessary characters in the "Private Use" section of Unicode, but this required both the writer and the reader to have the correct custom font installed. Another solution was to replace troublesome characters with near equivalents, for example substituting ⟨ä⟩ for ⟨ā⟩ or using a standard ⟨o⟩ followed by an interpunct to represent ⟨o͘⟩. In 2004 with the introduction into Unicode 4.1.0 of the combining diacritic COMBINING DOT ABOVE RIGHT (U+0358) all the necessary characters were present to write regular POJ without the need for workarounds. However, even after the addition of these characters, there are still relatively few fonts which are able to properly render the script, including the combining diacritics. Some of those which can are Charis SIL, DejaVu, Doulos SIL, Linux Libertine, and Taigi Unicode.

Han-Romanization mixed script

翻 tńg 工，我 koh hap i tī Hotel ê 餐廳食西式 ê chái 起，我講 beh tò 去稅厝 ê 所在，i beh 送我去，我 kā 拒絕，mā 無 beh hō͘ i 知我 ê 地址、電話番，講若有緣就會 koh 再相會。I 講人海茫茫，我若無 tī hit 間跳舞、唱歌，i beh 去 toh 位 chhōe--我？「就是 án-ni m̄-chiah 講是緣」，我嘴是 án-ni 應，心肝內知影 kap i 自細漢到這時 ê 牽連、綿纏無 hiah 簡單就煞。

Sample mixed orthography text

One of the most popular modern ways of writing Taiwanese is by using a mixed orthography called Hàn-lô (simplified Chinese: 汉罗; traditional Chinese: 漢羅; pinyin: Hàn-Luō; literally Chinese-Roman), and sometimes Han-Romanization mixed script. In fact, the term Hàn-lô does not describe one specific system, but covers any kind of writing in Southern Min which features both Chinese characters and romanization. That romanization is usually POJ, although recently some texts have begun appearing with Tâi-lô spellings too. The problem with using only Chinese characters to write Southern Min is that there are many morphemes (estimated to be around 15% of running text) which are not definitively associated with a particular character. Various strategies have been developed to deal with the issue, including creating new characters, allocating Mandarin characters with similar meanings (but dissimilar etymology) to represent the missing characters, or using romanization for the "missing 15%". There are two rationales for using mixed orthography writing, with two different aims. The first is to allow native speakers (almost all of whom can already write Chinese characters) to make use of their knowledge of characters, while replacing the missing 15% with romanization. The second is to wean character literates off using them gradually, to be replaced eventually by fully romanized text. Examples of modern texts in Hàn-lô include religious, pedagogical, scholarly, and literary works, such as:

• Chang Yu-hong. Principles of POJ.
• Babuja A. Sidaia. A-Chhûn.

Adaptations for other languages/dialects

POJ has been adapted for several other languages and dialects, with varying degrees of success. For Hakka, missionaries and others have produced a bible translation, hymn book, textbooks, and dictionaries. Materials produced in the orthography, called Pha̍k-fa-sṳ, include:

• Hak-ngi Siin-kin, Sin-yuk lau Sii-phien: Hien-thoi Thoi-van Hak-ngi Yit-pun (Hakka Bible, New Testament and Psalms: Today's Taiwan Hakka Version). Bible Society. 1993.
• Phang Tet-siu (1994). Thai-ka Loi Hok Hak-fa (Everybody Learn Hakka). Taipei: Southern Materials Center. ISBN 957-638-017-0.
• Phang Tet-siu (1996). Hak-ka-fa Fat-yim Sii-tien (Hakka Pronunciation Dictionary). Taipei: Southern Materials Center. ISBN 957-638-359-5.
• Hak-ka Siin-sii (Hakka Hymns). Tainan: PCT Press. 1999. ISBN 957-8349750.

A modified version of POJ has also been created for Teochew; there is currently a test version of Wikipedia using the orthography. Other Chinese languages/dialects covered by POJ variants include Gan Chinese, and Min Dong.

Current status

Some books which use Pe̍h-ōe-jī, including textbooks, dictionaries, a bible, poetry, and academic works

The majority of native Southern Min speakers in Taiwan are unfamiliar with POJ or any other writing system for the language, commonly asserting that "Taiwanese has no writing", or considering romanization as the "low" form of writing, in contrast with the "high" form (Chinese characters). For those who are introduced to POJ alongside Han-lo and completely Chinese character-based systems, a clear preference has been shown for all-character systems, with all-romanization systems finishing bottom of the preference list, likely due to the preexisting familiarity of readers with Chinese characters.

POJ remains the Taiwanese orthography "with the richest inventory of written work, including dictionaries, textbooks, literature [...] and other publications in many areas". A 1999 estimate put the number of literate POJ users at around 100,000, and secular organizations have been formed to promote the use of romanization among Taiwanese speakers. Outside Taiwan, POJ is rarely used, for example in Fujian where Xiamen University uses a romanization known as Pumindian, based on Hanyu Pinyin. In other areas where Hokkien is spoken, such as Singapore, an active campaign is underway to discourage people from speaking it and other "dialects" in favour of switching to Mandarin instead.

In 2006 Taiwan's Ministry of Education chose an official romanization for use in teaching the language in the state school system. POJ was one of the candidate systems, along with Daighi tongiong pingim, but in the end a compromise system, Tâi-lô, was chosen, which retains most of the orthographic standards of POJ, including the tone marks, while changing the troublesome o͘ character for oo, swapping ts for ch, and replacing o in diphthongs with u. Supporters of Taiwanese writing are in general deeply suspicious of government involvement, given the history of official suppression of native languages, making it unclear whether Tai-Lo or POJ will become the dominant system in the future.

References

Notes

Bibliography

• Ang Ui-jin (1992). Taiwan Fangyan zhi Lü (A Journey Through Taiwanese Regional Speech) (in Chinese). Taipei: Avanguard Publishing. ISBN 957-9512-31-0.
• Band, Edward (1936). Barclay of Formosa. Christian Literature Society. {{cite book}}: Text "location:Ginza, Tokyo" ignored (help)
• Baran, Dominika (2004). ""Taiwanese don't have written words": Language ideologies and language practice in a Taipei County high school". Conference Proceedings - 2004 International Conference on Taiwanese Romanization. Vol. 2.
• Campbell, William (2006) [1913]. A Dictionary of the Amoy Vernacular. Tainan: PCT Press. ISBN 957-8959-92-3.
• Chang Yu-hong (2001). Principles of POJ or the Taiwanese Orthography: An Introduction to Its Sound-Symbol Correspondences and Related Issues. Taipei: Crane. ISBN 978-957-2053-07-1. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: checksum (help)
• Copper, John F. (2007). A Historical Dictionary of Taiwan (Republic of China) (2nd ed.). Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-5600-4.
• Chiung, Wi-vun Taiffalo (2005). Language, Identity and Decolonization. Tainan: National Cheng Kung University. ISBN 957-8845-85-5.
• Chiung, Wi-vun Taiffalo (2007). Language, Literature and Reimagined Taiwanese Nation. Tainan: National Cheng Kung University. ISBN 978-986-00-9746-7.
• Chung Raung-fu (1996). The Segmental Phonology of Southern Min in Taiwan. Spoken Language Services. ISBN 957-9463-46-8. {{cite book}}: Text "location:Taipei" ignored (help)
• Douglas, Carstairs; Barclay, Thomas (1990) [1923]. Chinese-English Dictionary of the Vernacular or Spoken Language of Amoy. Taipei: Southern Materials Center. ISBN 957-9482-32-2.
• Embree, Bernard L.M. (1973). A Dictionary of Southern Min.
• Heylen, Ann (2001). "Romanizing Taiwanese: Codification and Standardization of Dictionaries in Southern Min (1837–1923)". In Ku Weit Ying; De Ridder, Koen (eds.). Authentic Chinese Christianity, Preludes to Its Development: Nineteenth & Twentieth Centuries. Leuven: Leuven University Press. ISBN 978-9058671028.
• Iûⁿ Ún-giân; Tiuⁿ Ha̍k-khiam (1999). "台灣福佬話非漢字拼音符號的回顧與分析 (Comparison and Analysis of non-Character Transcription Systems for Taiwanese Holo)" (in Chinese). Tainan: National Cheng Kung University. Retrieved 2009-12-17.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
• Iûⁿ Ún-giân (2009). Processing Techniques for Written Taiwanese – Tone Sandhi and POS Tagging (Doctoral dissertation). National Taiwan University.
• Kì Bō͘-hô (2008). 台語教會羅馬字講義 (Notes on Taiwanese Church Romanization). Tainan: PCT Press. ISBN 978-986-6947-34-6.
• Klöter, Henning (2002). "The History of Peh-oe-ji". 2002台灣羅馬字教學KAP研究國際學術研討會論文集 (Proceedings of the 2002 International Conference on Taiwanese Romanization Research). Taipei: Taiwanese Romanization Association.
• Klöter, Henning (2005). Written Taiwanese. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 3-447-05093-4.
• Lin, Alvin (1999). "Writing Taiwanese: The Development of Modern Written Taiwanese" (PDF). Sino-Platonic Papers (89).
• Maryknoll Fathers (1984). Taiwanese: Book 1. Taichung: Maryknoll.
• Norman, Jerry (1998). Chinese. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-29653-6.
• Ong Iok-tek (2002). Taiwanyu Yanjiu Juan (in Chinese). Taipei: Avanguard Publishing. ISBN 957-801-354-X.
• Ota, Katsuhiro J (2005). An investigation of written Taiwanese (Master's thesis) (PDF). University of Hawai'i at Manoa.
• Ramsey, S. Robert (1987). The Chinese Language. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-01468-5.
• Babuja A. Sidaia (1998). A-Chhûn (in Hàn-lô Taiwanese). Taipei: Taili. ISBN 957-98861-6-4.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
• Tiuⁿ Ha̍k-khiam (2004). "白話字kap台語文的現代化 (Peh-oe-ji and the Modernization of Written Taiwanese)". Conference Proceedings - 2004 International Conference on Taiwanese Romanization (in Han-lo Taiwanese). Vol. 1.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
• Tseng Rui-cheng (2009). Taiwan Minnanyu Luomazi Pinyin Fang'an Shiyong Shouce (Practical Manual for the Taiwan Southern Min Romanization System) (PDF) (in Chinese). ROC Ministry of Education. ISBN 978-986-01-6637-8.
• Wu Chang-neng (2007). The Taigi Literature Debates and Related Developments (1987–1996) (Master's thesis). Taipei: National Chengchi University.
• Wu Guo-sheng; Chen Yi-hsin (2004). "客家語羅馬字文獻的版本研究 (Books Written in Hakka Romanization)". Conference Proceedings - 2004 International Conference on Taiwanese Romanization (in Chinese). Vol. 2.

External links

General

• "Tai-gu Bang". - Google group for Taiwanese language enthusiasts - uses POJ and Chinese characters.
• "Pe̍h-ōe-jī Unicode Correspondence Table" (PDF). Tailingua. 2009. - information on Unicode encodings for POJ text
• "Taiwanese Romanization Association". - group dedicated to the promotion of Taiwanese and Hakka romanization

Input methods

• "Open Vanilla". - open source input method for both Windows and Mac OS X.
• "Tai-lo Input Method" (in Chinese). - cross-platform input method released by Taiwan's Ministry of Education.
• "Transliterator". - extension for the Firefox browser which allows POJ input in-browser.

POJ-compliant fonts

• "Charis SIL". SIL International. - serif font in regular, bold, italic, and bold italic.
• "DejaVu". - available in serif, sans-serif, and monospace.
• "Doulos SIL". SIL International. - Times New Roman-style serif.
• "Gentium". SIL International. - open source serif.
• "Linux Libertine". - GPL and OPL-licensed serif.
• "Taigi Unicode". - serif font specifically designed for POJ.

Texts and dictionaries

• "Taiwanese bibliography". - list of books in Taiwanese, including those written in POJ.
• "Memory of Written Taiwanese". - collection of Taiwanese texts in various orthographies, including many in POJ.
• "Tai-Hoa Dictionary". - dictionary which includes POJ, Taiwanese in Chinese characters, and Mandarin characters. Some English definitions also available.
• Exhibits: Taiwanese Romanization Peh-oe-ji - sample images of various older POJ texts.