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Linear A
Linear A inscription on a cup
Script type
Undeciphered
presumed logosyllabic (syllabic and ideographic)
Time period
MM IB to LM IIIA 1800–1450 BC [1]
StatusExtinct
Languages'Minoan' (unknown)
Related scripts
Child systems
Linear B, Cypro-Minoan syllabary [2]
Sister systems
Cretan hieroglyphs
ISO 15924
ISO 15924Lina (400), ​Linear A
Unicode
Unicode alias
Linear A
"U+10600–U+1077F" (PDF).
"Final Accepted Script Proposal" (PDF).
This page contains Linear A Unicode characters. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Linear A.

Linear A is a writing system that was used by the Minoans of Crete from 1800 BC to 1450 BC. Linear A was the primary script used in palace and religious writings of the Minoan civilization. It was succeeded by Linear B, which was used by the Mycenaeans to write an early form of Greek. It was discovered by the archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans in 1900. No texts in Linear A have yet been deciphered. Evans named the script "Linear" because its characters consisted simply of lines inscribed in clay, in contrast to the more pictographic characters in Cretan hieroglyphs that were used during the same period.[3]

Linear A belongs to a group of scripts that evolved independently of the Egyptian and Mesopotamian systems. During the second millennium BC, there were four major branches: Linear A, Linear B, Cypro-Minoan, and Cretan hieroglyphic.[4] In the 1950s, Linear B was deciphered and found to have an underlying language of Mycenaean Greek. Linear A shares many symbols with Linear B, and they may notate similar syllabic values, but neither those nor any other proposed readings lead to a language that scholars can read.

Script edit

Linear A consists of over 300 signs including regional variants and hapax legomena. Among these, a core group of 90 occur with some frequency throughout the script's geographic and chronological extent.[5][6]

 
  
The complex sign in the top row is formed out of the two on the bottom row.[5][7]

As a logosyllabic writing system, Linear A includes signs which stand for syllables as well as others standing for words or concepts. Linear A's signs could be combined via ligature to form complex signs. Complex signs usually behave as ideograms and most are hapax legomena, occuring only once in the surviving corpus. Thus, Linear A signs are divided into four categories:[5][6]

  1. syllabic signs
  2. ligatures and composite signs
  3. ideograms
  4. numerals and metrical signs

Linear A was usually written left-to-right, but a handful of documents were written right-to-left or boustrophedon.[5]

Signary edit

Linear A: signary and numbering according to E. Bennett.[8]
*01-*20 *21-*30 *31-*53 *54-*74 *76-*122 *123-*306
 

*01

 

*21

 

*31

 

*54

 

*76

 

*123

 

*02

 

*21

 

*34

 

*55

 

*77

 

*131a

 

*03

 

*21

 

*37

 

*56

 

*78

 

*131b

 

*04

 

*22

 

*38

 

*57

 

*79

 

*131c

 

*05

 

*22

 

*39

 

*58

 

*80

 

*164

 

*06

 

*22

 

*40

 

*59

 

*81

 

*171

 

*07

 

*23

 

*41

 

*60

 

*82

 

*180

 

*08

 

*23

 

*44

 

*61

 

*85

 

*188

 

*09

 

*24

 

*45

 

*65

 

*86

 

*191

 

*10

 

*26

 

*46

 

*66

 

*87

 

*301

 

*11

 

*27

 

*47

 

*67

 

*100/
*102

 

*302

 

*13

 

*28

 

*49

 

*69

 

*118

 

*303

 

*16

 

*28b

 

*50

 

*70

 

*120

 

*304

 

*17

 

*29

 

*51

 

*73

 

*120b

 

*305

 

*20

 

*30

 

*53

 

*74

 

*122

 

*306

Numbers edit

Main article: Aegean numerals

Numbers follow a decimal system: units are represented by vertical dashes, tens by horizontal dashes, hundreds by circles, and thousands by circles with rays. There are special symbols to indicate fractions and weights. Specific signs that coincide with numerals are regarded as fractions;[9] these sign combinations are known as klasmatograms.[10]

Integers can be read and the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division are quite straightforward, similarly to Roman numerals.[11]

Aegean numerals
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
                 
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
                 
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
                 

Fractions edit

There is a lack of scholarly agreement signs, generally called klasmatograms, for Linear A fractions.[12][13][14][15] In 2021 Michele Corazza proposed the following values, most of which had been previously suggested:[16]

Proposed values of fraction glyphs[16]
Symbol Glyph Value
J   1⁄2
E   1⁄4
B   1⁄5
D   1⁄6
F   1⁄8
K   1⁄10
H   1⁄16?
L2   1⁄20
A   1⁄24?
L3   1⁄30
L4   1⁄40
L6   1⁄60
W   = BB? (2⁄5)
X   = AA? (1⁄12)
Y   ?
Ω   ?

Other fractions are composed by addition: the common JE and DD are 3⁄4 and 1⁄3 (2⁄6), BB = 2⁄5, EF = 3⁄8, etc. (and indeed B 1⁄5 looks like it might derive from KK 2⁄10). L, Y, Ω are hapax legomenon (only occur once) and it has been proposed that glyph L is spurious.[16]

Several of these values are supported by Linear B. Although Linear B used a different numbering system, several of the Linear A fractions were adopted as fractional units of measurement. For example, Linear B DD and (presumably AA) are 1⁄3 and 1⁄12 of a lana, while K is 1⁄10 of the main unit for dry weight.[16]

Corpus edit

 
Linear A incised on tablets found in Akrotiri, Santorini
 
Linear A tablet, Chania Archaeological Museum

Linear A has been found chiefly on Crete, but also at other sites in Greece, as well as Turkey and Israel. The extant corpus, comprising some 1,427 specimens totals 7,362 to 7,396 signs. Linear A has been written on various media, such as stone offering tables and vessels, gold and silver hairpins, roundels, and ceramics.[17][18] The earliest inscriptions of Linear A come from Phaistos, in a layer dated at the end of the Middle Minoan II period: that is, no later than c. 1700 BC.[19][20] Linear A texts have been found throughout the island of Crete and also on some Aegean islands (Kythera, Kea, Thera, Melos), in mainland Greece (Ayos Stephanos), on the west coast of Asia Minor (Miletus, Troy), and in the Levant (Tel Haror, Tel Lachish).[21][22][23]

The first comprehensive compendium of Linear A inscriptions (sometimes referred to as GORILA) was produced by Louis Godart and Jean-Pierre Olivier in multiple columns between 1976 and 1985.[24][25][26][27][28] In 2011 work began on a supplement to that compendium.[29] In 2020 a project was begun, called SigLA, to put all the known Linear A inscriptions online at a single site.[30]

Tablets edit

 
Linear A tablet from the palace of Zakros, Archeological Museum of Sitia

Essentially all Linear A tablets, most in a fragmentary condition, have been found on the island of Crete, dated to the Neopalatial Period. At that time Crete was divided by mountains and other geographic features into a number of polities, each with its own urban center.[31] These tablets have been found at Hagia Triada (147 tablets), Petras, Phaistos (26 tablets), Knossos (6 tablets), Petsophas, Archanes (7 tablets), Myrtos Pyrgos (2 tablets), Zakros (31 tablets), Tylissos (2 tablets), Malia (6 tablets), Gournia (1 tablet), and Khania (99 tablets).[32][33][34][35][36] One Linear A tablet was found on Kea in the Cyclades.[37] Three tablet fragments were found on on the island of Santorini (Thera).[38] The handful of known Cretan Hieroglyphs tablets known (with relatively few signs) were also found on Crete at Malia and Kato Symi.[39]

Sealed documents edit

 
Minoan inscriptions, Linear A script, Phaistos

Seals and clay sealings served the same role of inventory control and ownership as in the ancient Near East and Egypt. Large numbers of sealings have been found, primarily on Crete and in the Late Minoan IB period. The primary sources of sealed documents come from Haghia Triada (1103), Zakros (560), Khania (210), Knossos (125), Phaistos (35), Mallia (6), and Tylissos (5).[40] It is not clear what was commonly used to impress the sealing as only a few Linear A inscribed "seal stones" have been found. In other regions cylinder seals and stamp seals fulfilled this role.[41]

Sealed documents are divided by archaeologists into four classes:[33]

  • Roundels - disks of clay with sealing on the edges[42]
  • Hanging nodules - sealed lumps of clay originally attached to string[43]
  • Parcel nodules - lumps of clay with sealing on back
  • Noduli - clay lumps like hanging nodules but not formerly string attached

Libation Tables edit

A group of Minoan finds, usually from sanctuaries, have traditionally been called libation tables. They come in full sized and miniature versions, usually of stone. Because of the findspots, at cultic sites like Mount Juktas, they are usually assumed to be religious in nature though that is not certain.[44] So far about 1000 libation tables have been recovered at 27 different sites on Crete, of which 41 have Linear A inscriptions.[45][46][47] These inscriptions follow a standardized "libation formula", a formula also found on a few other objects, primarily vessels.[48][49][50][51]

The "libation formula" has been much studied.[52][53] A similar construct in Cretan Hieroglyphs, the "Archanes Formula", is the main proposed link to Linear A.[54]

Other sources edit

 
Prähistorisches Museum Thira Linearschrift A 06

While most of the recovered Linear A signs have come from tablets, libation tables and related ritual objects, and sealed documents, a number of very short Linear A inscriptions have been found in the Minoan area of operation, primarily in the form of potmarks and mason's marks.[55] A problem is that is can be difficult to tell if a single-sign (or even doubleton) is Linear A, Linear B, or Cretan Hieroglyphs because to the overlap in sign use.[56][57] Vessel sherds were found at Traostalos, bearing three signs in total.[58] Four vase sherds were found at Thera with signs, as well as a ostrakon with one sign.[38] A vessel fragement was found at Miletus.[59] Two pithoi with very fragmentary inscriptions were found at Pseira.[60] Grafitti has been found at places like Hagia Triada.[61] A small clay ball with three Linear A signs was found at Mikro Vouni on the island of Samothrace.[62] A small stone tab with two signs was excavated in Hagios Stephanos, Laconia.[63] A siver hair pin and a gold ring, both with fairly long Linear A inscriptions, were found at Mavro Spelio in Knossos.[64][22][65]

A Linear A inscription was said to have been found in southeast Bulgaria.[66] Another, somewhat more solid, find was at Tel Lachish.[67] A Minoan graffito found at Tel Haror on a vessel fragment is either Linear A or Cretan hieroglyphs.[68]

Several tablets inscribed in signs similar to Linear A were found at Troy in northwestern Anatolia. While their status is disputed, they may be imports, as there is no evidence of Minoan presence in the Troad. Classification of these signs as a unique Trojan script (proposed by contemporary Russian linguist Nikolai Kazansky) is not accepted by other linguists.[69][70] Two Linear A inscribed clay spindle whorls were also found at Troy.[71]

Chronology edit

See also: Minoan chronology

The earliest attestation of Linear A begins around 1800 BC (Middle Minoan IB) during the Protopalatial period. It became prominent around 1625 BC (Middle Minoan IIIB) and went out of use around 1450 BC (Late Minoan I) during the Neopalatial period. It was contemporary with and possibly derived from Cretan hieroglyphs, and may be an ancestor of Linear B. The Cypro-Minoan syllabary, used between Cyprus and its trading partners around the Mediterranean, was also in use during this period.[72] The sequence and the geographical spread of Cretan hieroglyphs, Linear A, and Linear B, the three overlapping but distinct writing systems on Bronze Age Crete and the Greek mainland, can be summarized as follows:[73]

Writing system Geographical area Time span
Cretan Hieroglyphic Crete, Samothrace c. 2100–1700 BC
Linear A Crete, Aegean islands (Kea, Kythera, Melos, Thera), and Greek mainland (Laconia) c. 1800–1450 BC
Cypro-Minoan Cyprus and trading partners, Ugarit c. 1550–1050 BC
Linear B Crete (Knossos), and mainland (Pylos, Mycenae, Thebes, Tiryns) c. 1450–1200 BC

Decipherment edit

 
Minoan inscriptions, Linear A script

Linear A is undeciphered.

Although we have a rough idea of how it was pronounced and some details and some [5][6]

Incremental progress [74]

palaeography

Current research on Linear A primarily uses statistical methods to recognize patterns such as associations between sign sequences.[5]

Challenges to decipherment edit

One major barrier to its decipherment is the limited surviving corpus. Only around 1400 Linear A inscriptions survive, in contrast to the 6000 available for Linear B. As a result, researchers are stuck with limited sample sizes, making it difficult to reliably detect patterns.[5][6][74] Similarly, Linear A inscriptions are often fragmentary, damaged, or otherwise hard to read. It can be difficult to individuate particular signs and to distinguish separate signs from handwriting variants.[5][6][74] Finally, Linear A inscriptions tend to be brief and repetitive. Rather than complete sentences, many are lists where each entry consists of a toponym or personal name followed by a logogram and then a numeral. Thus, the surviving corpus contains few spelled-out words and limited evidence of the grammatical structure.[5][6][17]

A second barrier is the scarcity of external evidence. No bilingual inscriptions have been found, preventing the script from being deciphered in the manner of the hieroglyphs and the Rosetta stone.[5][6] The underlying language of Linear A has not been determined, and it is not clear that the same language was used for its entire lifespan of use. The grammatical evidence that can be gleaned from the surviving corpus suggests that it was not a close relative of any known language.[5][6]

Phonetic values edit

Linear A documents can be partly read phonetically. This does not amount to a decipherment since it results in words that are uninterpretable.[5]

The pronunciation of many Linear A syllabic signs can be inferred based on parallels with Linear B. Roughly 70% of Linear A's syllabic signs have correspondents in Linear B, including almost all of the core signs. These signs are generally assumed to have had similar or identical pronunciations. Evidence for this comes both from historical continuity between the scripts as well as matching pronunciations of words where one would expect homophony.[5] For instance, words which contextual analysis suggests to be placenames are read as such when assuming Linear B values. Notably, the Linear A word 𐘂𐘚𐘄 would be read as Pa-i-to, corresponding to the placename Phaistos attested in the Linear B corpus as 𐀞𐀂𐀵 Pa-i-to.[5]Cite error: A <ref> tag is missing the closing </ref> (see the help page).[75][76]

While many of those assumed to be syllabic signs are similar to ones in Linear B, approximately 80% of Linear A's logograms are unique;[77][4] the difference in sound values between Linear A and Linear B signs ranges from 9% to 13%.[78]

Interpretable signs edit

Likewise, in Linear A, MA+RU is suggested to mean wool, and to correspond both to a Linear B pictogram with this meaning, and to the classical Greek word μαλλός with the same meaning (in that case a loan word from Minoan).[75]

Language edit

Linear A does not appear to encode any known language. The placeholder term Minoan language has been used for the language of Linear A, though it is not certain that the texts are all in the same language.[5][79]

The language appears to be an agglutinative, making copious use of prefixes and suffixes. It likely had a three vowel system, since it shares Linear B's /i/, /u/, and /a/ series, but not Linear B's /o/ series and not all of its /e/ series.[5] Based on regularities in the Linear A Libation Formulas, it has been argued that its word order was Verb Subject Object.[80][81][5]

Proposed languages encoded edit

 
Linear A incised on a jug, also found in Akrotiri

Anatolian languages edit

 
Anatolian hieroglyphs

Scholars have noted a number of parallels between Linear A and the Anatolian languages. However, if these connections are valid, it is unclear whether Minoan is itself an Anatolian language or if the parallels arose through language contact.

One prominent proposal suggests that the Minoan language is related to Luwian. This was first proposed in 1958 by Leonard Palmer on the basis of potential etymological connections that arise if Linear A is read with Linear B phonetic values.[82][37] More recent work supports a connection with Luwian, though it is unclear whether the languages are related or if they were merely in contact.[83] Richard Janke has suggested that "Hittite and Luwian cognates often reappear in Linear A".[84]

An alternative proposed by Margalit Finkelberg in 2001, argues that Minoan is a close relative or even direct ancestor of Lycian, based on apparent features of phonological and morphological system.[76][85]

Semitic languages edit

In the 1960s, Cyrus H. Gordon proposed that the Minoan language was Semitic. Evidence for this position included potential etymological parallels that emerge when Linear A is read with Linear B sound values. For instance, the Minoan word used to mark a total is read as "ku-ro", reminiscient of Akkadian kalu, kullatu (𒅗𒆷, 𒆰𒆷𒌅), Hebrew "kol" (כֹּל), and Arabic "kull" (كُلّ)), meaning 'all'.[86][87][4] Gordon uses morphological evidence to suggest that u- serves as a prefix in Linear A like the Semitic copula u-. However, Gordon's copula u- is based on an incomplete word, and even if some of Gordon's identifications were correct, a complete case for a Semitic language has not yet been built.[4]

Gordon's arguments were not widely accepted. He did not find Semitic grammatical patterns, and the particular linked vocabulary items are for pots and crops, i.e. portable goods for which terminology would be easily borrowed. The writing system would also collapse crucial phonetic distinctions in a Semitic language, e.g. the s-series can be for s, s-hat, t-underline [garrett]

In 2001, Jan Best, claimed to demonstrate how and why Linear A notates an archaic form of Phoenician.[88][89]

Other languages edit

Alexander Akulov and Peter Schrijver proposed that the language of Linear A is a close relative of the Hattic language.[90][91]

In the mid-20th century, scholars such as Vladimir I. Georgiev and Gregory Nagy identified "Greek-like elements" in Linear A.[92][93][94] Present day scholarship leans against the possibility of Linear A having been used to write Greek, in particular since the grammar evident in the tablets is entirely different from that of Greek.[76]

Some scholars have speculated that Minoan may have been related to the Tyrsenian languages. This guess, shared by early scholars including Michael Ventris and Arthur Evans.[95][96][97][98]

Unicode edit

Main article: Linear A (Unicode block)

The Linear A alphabet (U+10600–U+1077F) was added to the Unicode Standard in June 2014 with the release of version 7.0. Current as of the latest Unicode version, 15.1.[99]

See also edit

References edit

  1. ^ Daniels, Peter T.; Bright, William (1996). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-507993-7.
  2. ^ Palaima 1997, pp. 121–188.
  3. ^ Robinson, Andrew (2009). Writing and Script: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-9-40-215757-4.
  4. ^ a b c d Packard 1974, Chapter 1: Introduction.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Salgarella, Ester (2022). "Linear A". In Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther (eds.). Oxford Classical Dictionary. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.8927.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h Tomas, Helena (2012). "Cretan Hieroglyphic and Linear A". In Cline, Eric (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean. Oxford University Press. pp. 113–125. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199873609.013.0026. ISBN 978-0199873609.
  7. ^ https://sigla.phis.me/search-attestation.html#attestation:.[att-site%20@%20!unit:]%20(belongs-location%20@%20![location]:[])%20&&%20.[att-type%20@%20!unit:]%20(belongs-kind%20@%20![kind]:[])%20&&%20sign-match%20@%20!reading-pattern:(A559,%20false)//[att-site:groupResult\/;occ-doc-name:sort/\]
  8. ^ Bennett, E. L. Jr., "Mycenaean Studies Proceedings of the Third International Colloquium for Mycenaean Studies held at 'Wingspread', 4—8 September 1961", ed. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1964
  9. ^ Packard 1974, pp. 23–24
  10. ^ Proust, Christine (22 June 2009). "Numerical and Metrological Graphemes: From Cuneiform to Transliteration". Cuneiform Digital Library Journal. Retrieved 23 January 2024.
  11. ^ Anderson, W. French (1 July 1958). "Arithmetical Procedure in Minoan Linear A and in Minoan-Greek Linear B". American Journal of Archaeology. 62 (3): 363–368. doi:10.2307/501989. ISSN 0002-9114. JSTOR 501989. S2CID 193020404.
  12. ^ Billigmeier, Jon C. (1 October 1973). "Linear A Fractions: A New Approach". American Journal of Archaeology. 77 (1): 61–65. doi:10.2307/503234. ISSN 0002-9114. JSTOR 503234. S2CID 191382050.
  13. ^ Bennett, Emmett L. (1 January 1980). "Linear A fractional retractation". Kadmos. 19 (1): 12–23. doi:10.1515/kadmos-1980-0104. ISSN 0022-7498. S2CID 163961065.
  14. ^ Schrijver, Peter (1 July 2014). "Fractions and food rations in Linear A". Kadmos. 53 (1–2): 1–44. doi:10.1515/kadmos-2014-0001. ISSN 0022-7498. S2CID 164932371.
  15. ^ Giulio Facchetti, "Linear A metrograms", Kadmos, vol. 33, no. 2, pp. 142-148, 1994
  16. ^ a b c d Corazza, Michele; Ferrara, Silvia; Montecchi, Barbara; Tamburini, Fabio; Valério, Miguel (2021). "The mathematical values of fraction signs in the Linear A script: A computational, statistical and typological approach". Journal of Archaeological Science. 125: 1–14. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2020.105214. hdl:11585/789546. S2CID 225229514.
  17. ^ a b Winterstein, Gregoire; Cacciafoco, Francesco Perono; Petrolito, Ruggero; Petrolito, Tommaso (2015). "Minoan linguistic resources: The Linear A digital corpus". Proceedings of the 9th SIGHUM Workshop on Language Technology for Cultural Heritage, Social Sciences, and Humanities (LaTeCH) – via Academia.edu.
  18. ^ Brent Davis, Minoan Stone Vessels with Linear A Inscriptions. AEGAEUM, 36. Leuven; Liège: Peeters, 2014. xxiv, 421. ISBN 9789042930971
  19. ^ Hutchinson R.W., "Prehistoric Crete", London, 1962
  20. ^ Pugliese Carratelli G, "Nouve epigrafi minoiche da Festo", Annuario della Scuola Archaeologica di Atene 35-36[n.s. 19-20(1957-1958)], pp. 363-388, 1958
  21. ^ Woudhuizen, Fred C. (2016). Documents in Minoan Luwian, Semitic, and Pelasgian. Amsterdam: Nederlands Archeologisch Historisch Genootschap. ISBN 9789072067197. OCLC 1027956786.
  22. ^ a b Cacciafoco, Francesco Perono (January 2014). Linear A and Minoan. The riddle of unknown origins. Linear a and Minoan. The Riddle of Unknown Origins (slides). Retrieved 13 July 2020 – via Academia.edu.
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  32. ^ Gallimore, S., and K.T. Glowacki. “Stratigraphic Excavations within the Gournia Palace 2011-2014.” [Abstract]. Archaeological Institute of America 119th Annual Meeting of the Archaeological Institute of America Volume 41 (2017), 345. Boston: Archaeological Institute of America
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  34. ^ Hallager, Erik; Andreadaki-Vlazaki, Maria (1 July 2018). "Some unpublished Linear A documents from Khania". Kadmos. 57 (1–2): 33–44. doi:10.1515/kadmos-2018-0004. ISSN 0022-7498. S2CID 204963634.
  35. ^ Schoep 1999, pp. 201–221.
  36. ^ Anna Morpurgo-Davies, Gerald Cadogan, "A second Linear A tablet from Pyrgos" Kadmos, vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 7-9, 1977
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  38. ^ a b Bennett, Simon M. and Owens, Gareth A., "The Dating of the Linear A Inscriptions from Thera", Kadmos, vol. 38, no. 1–2, pp. 12–18, 1999
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  40. ^ Schoep, Ilse (1999). "Tablets and Territories? Reconstructing Late Minoan IB Political Geography through Undeciphered Documents". American Journal of Archaeology. 103 (2): 201–221. doi:10.2307/506745. ISSN 0002-9114. JSTOR 506745. S2CID 155632843.
  41. ^ Civitillo, Matilde (2023). "Comparing Cretan Hieroglyphic and Linear A seal stones: a preliminary assessment of forms, materials, sequences, uses". Ariadne Supplement Series. ISSN 2623-4726.
  42. ^ Erik Hallager, "The Minoan Roundel and Other Sealed Documents in the Neopalatial Linear A Administration", Peeters Publishers, 31 Dec 1996 ISBN 9789042924130
  43. ^ [5]Tsipopoulou, Metaxia, and Erik Hallager, "The nodules and their types-definitions and discussions", Monographs of the Danish Institute at Athens (MoDIA) 9, pp. 182-194, 2010
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Works cited edit

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