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Turks
Türkler
Total population
The total Turkish population is unknown.
Regions with significant populations
Traditional areas of Turkish settlement
Turkish majorities:
 Turkey 55 to 59.5 million[1][2]
 Northern Cyprus 286,257 (2011 census)[a][3]
Turkish communities:
 Cyprus1 1,128 (2011 census)[4][b]

Turkish minorities

Turkish minorities in the Balkans:
 Bulgaria588,318 (2011 census)[5]
 Macedonia77,959 (2002 census)[6]
est. 170,000-200,000[7][8]
 Greece85,945 (1951 census)[9]
est.49,000 to 85,000
(in Western Thrace)[10][11]
less than 5,000
(in Kos and Rhodes)[12]
 Kosovo18,738 (2011 census)[13]
est.30,000[14]
 Romania27,700 (2011 census)[15]
est.55,000-80,000[16][17]
 Bosnia and Herzegovina267 (1991 census)[18]
Turkish minorities
in the Arab world
 Iraq567,000 (1957 census)[d][19][20][21]
3 million (2013 Iraqi Ministry of Planning estimate)[22]
 Algeria2est.600,000 to 2 million[23][24][25]
 Syriaest.500,000 to 3.5 million[c][26][27][28][29][24]
 Egyptest. 100,000 to 1.5 million[30][24]
 Tunisia2est.500,000[24]
 Saudi Arabiaest.150,000 to 200,000[24][31]
 Lebanonest.80,000[32]
 Jordanest.60,000[24]
 Libya335,062 (1936 census)[33]
est.50,000[24]

Turkish diaspora

Western Europe: 4
 Germanyest. 2.5 to over 4 million[e][34][35][36][37][38][39][40][41][42][43][44][45]
 Franceest.500,000 to 800,000[46][47][48]
 Netherlandsest. 500,000[f][49][50][48]
 United Kingdomest. 500,000[g][48][51]
 Austriaest.350,000 to over 500,000[52][53][48]
 Belgiumest. over 200,000[54][55]
  Switzerlandest.120,000[56]
 Swedenest.100,000[h][57]
 Denmarkest.70,000[58][59] North America:
 United States195,283 (2010 census)[60]
est. 500,000[61][62][63]
 Canada55,430 (2011 census)[64]
est. -- Oceania:
 Australia66,919 (2011 census)[i][65]
est.300,000 (in Melbourne)[i][66] former USSR:
 Russia109,883 (2010 census)[j][67]
est. at least 120,000-150,000[68]
 Kazakhstan97,015 (2009 census)[69]
est. 150,000 to 180,000[k][70][71]
 Kyrgyzstan39,133 (2009 census)[72]
est.42,000-70,000[k][70][71]
 Azerbaijan38,000 (2009 census)[73]
est.87,000-110,000[k][70][74][75][71]
 Uzbekistan106,302 (1989 census)[76]
est.38,000[k][70][71]
 Turkmenistan12,000 (2013 census)[77]
est.--
 Ukraine8,844 (2001 census)[78]
est.8,000[k][70][71]
Languages
Turkish
Religion
Predominantly Islam (mostly Sunni, Alevi, Bektashi), though many support secular ideologies.
Many Turks are also irreligious, atheist, or have converted to other religions.
1 The Cypriot Constitution of 1960 (Articles 2 and 3) recognizes "Two Communities": the Greek Cypriots and the Turkish Cypriots. Furthermore, the Republic recognizes three religious minority groups: the Maronites, the Armenians, and the Latins.[79]
2 In the late nineteenth century the French colonisers in North Africa classified the populations under their rule as "Arab" and "Berber", despite the fact that these countries had diverse populations, which also comprised of ethnic Turks and Kouloughlis (offspring of Turkish men and North African women).[80] Although Turkish descendants have since been linguistically Arabized, many still acknowledge their Turkish heritage and maintain some of their cultural traditions. For example, the Turkish minorities in Algeria,[81][82][83][84] and Tunisia[85][86][87][88][89][90] still practice the Hanafi school of Islam (whilst ethnic Arabs practice the Maliki school)[86][87] and many retain their Turkish origin surnames.[82][90][84][88][89] Due to an absence of census data based on ethnicity,[91] the current population of ethnic Turks remains unclear; however estimates suggest that Turkish descendants make up 5%,[25][92] 10%,[92] or 25%[93] of Algeria's population and up to 25% of Tunisia's population.[93]
3 Some inhabitants of Libya identify themselves as ethnically Turkish,[94][95] however, official data does not allow citizens to declare their ethnicity.[91] A census conducted by Italian colonizers in 1936 showed that 4.7% of the country's population were of partial Turkish ancestry.[33]
4 These estimates are based on people of Turkish origin, including naturalised ethnic Turks and their descendants. Official statistics of most Western European countries only record information on country of birth/citizenship and do not allow inhabitants to self-declare their ethnicity - including the Austrian, Belgian, Danish, French, German, Swedish and Swiss censuses.[96]

The Turkish people, or the Turks (Turkish: Türkler), are a Turkic ethnic group living mainly in the Republic of Turkey and the former lands of the Ottoman Empire. They speak the Turkish language, which is the most widely spoken Turkic language.

The Turks form by far the largest ethnolinguistic group in the Republic of Turkey, where they are commonly referred to as Anatolian Turks (Turkish: Anadolu Türkleri) in the Anatolian regions. However, this term is less common in the Aegean, Marmara, and Mediterranean regions, where people refer to themselves simply as "Turks". The Turkish people also form a majority in the breakaway state of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus - which is populated mostly by Turkish Cypriots and recent Anatolian Turkish settlers. Moreover, under Article 1 of the 1960 Cypriot constitution, the Turkish Cypriots form one of the "Two Communities" of the Republic of Cyprus (alongside the Greek Cypriots); hence, they have equal power-sharing rights and are not officially a minority group.[79][97]

There are also ethnic Turks who form minorities in other former territories of the Ottoman Empire, such as in the Balkans, the Caucasus (historically concentrated in the Meskheti region in Georgia) and the Arab world, particularly in North Africa (where they were historically called "Kouloughlis" in the Barbary coast) and Mesopotamia. Turkish is a recognized language in Bosnia and Herzegovina,[98] Croatia,[99] Greece,[100] Kosovo,[101] the Republic of Macedonia,[102] and Romania.[98]

In addition, a modern diaspora has been formed since the early 20th century, including Meskhetian Turks deported to Central Asia, Russia, and Ukraine from Georgia in 1944 by Soviet authorities, Turkish Cypriots in the United Kingdom and other British territories due to the Cyprus conflict, and from the mid-20th century onwards, economic emigrants in Western Europe, and to a lesser extent Australia and North America. Consequently, Turks today form the largest ethnic minority in Denmark, Germany, and the Netherlands, and the second largest minority in Austria.[103]

Who are the Turks? edit

The term "Turks" generally applies to various Turkic speaking people who traditionally live between the Balkans in the west to East Turkestan in the east.[104] However, with the establishment of independent Turkic states in the twentieth century, radical nation-building policies and distinct national identities have been formed by these Turkic groups.[105] Today the ethnic Turkish people - who live primarily in the Republic of Turkey, Northern Cyprus, and other former lands of the Ottoman Empire - are recorded as "Turks" in national censuses of all Turkic states, whilst these nations distinguish their own ethnic groups as "Azeri", "Kazakh", "Kyrgyz", "Turkmen" and "Uzbek" rather than as "Turks".

Perhaps the earliest mention of the ethnonym "Turk" dates back to 484-425 BCE when the ancient Greek historian Herodotus referred to Targitas (the first king of the Scythians or to the lyrcai people).[104] Thereafter, by the first century CE the Roman geographer Pomponius Mela referred to the "Turcae" in the forests north of the Sea of Azov, whilst the Roman writer Pliny the Elder listed the "Tyrcae" as also living in the same area. However, the first definitive references to the "Turks" come from sixth century Chinese sources which refer to a diverse group of Turkic speakers living in the north and west of Chinese territory.[104]

The first Turk Empire, known as the Turkic Khaganate, was established in 552 CE and stretched from northern China towards the territories of Sassanid territories in Central Asia. However, by the 580s internal strife occurred between the "Eastern" Gök Turks and "Western" Oğuz Turks and by 711 the latter broke away from the khaganate. The mid-eighth century Turkic text – known as the Orkhon inscriptions – sheds light on these events.[104]

Today's ethnic Turkish people trace their lineage to the Oğuz Turks, who were overwhelmingly nomadic and were probably mostly shamanists prior to their conversion to Islam. However, once the Muslim Arab armies reached Amu Darya in 674, Islam was firmly established in Central Asia after Arab raids in 751.[104] The conversion of the Turks to Islam was filtered through Persian and Central Asian culture, as well as through the efforts of missionaries, merchants and Sufis. However, many Turks also converted to Islam once they became the slaves of Arab raiders.[104]

Under the Umayyads the Turks were mostly domestic slaves whilst under the Abbasids they were trained as soldiers and fought for the expanding Muslim empire. By the ninth-century Turkish commanders began to lead the caliphs’ Turkish troops into battles, and assumed even more military and political power when the Abbasid caliphate began to decline. By the mid-tenth century, the Seljuk Turks established the Seljuk Empire (1037–1194) which established the first mass migration of Turks to the Middle East.[104]

The migration of Turks (and subsequent Turkification) of Anatolia occurred once the Seljuk Turks defeated the Byzantines at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071. Turks continued to migrate to Anatolia for centuries under the rule of the Sultanate of Rum (1077–1308), the Anatolian beyliks and the Ottoman Empire (1299–1922) - many of which intermarried with local Anatolian inhabitants. The policy of Turkificiation (through language and/or religion) was also implemented to varying degrees when the Ottomans conquered territories in the Balkans, the Caucasus, Cyprus the Levant, North Africa, and Mesopotamia, by sending Turkish-speaking Anatolian Muslims, who were by-and-large loyal subjects of the Ottoman administration, to these regions.[106]

By the nineteenth century the Ottoman intelligentsia, as well as Ottoman Muslims (particularly the Turkish-speaking), played a crucial role in the development of Turkish nationalism which emphasized Anatolia as the "Turkish homeland" ("vatan").[107] From the late eighteenth century onwards many Ottoman subjects began to migrate "back" to the "vatan" as muhacirs, which continued even after the establishment of the Republic of Turkey in 1923.

History edit

The arrival of the Turks in Anatolia: The Byzantine & Seljuk eras edit

From Principality to Empire: The Ottoman era edit

The Ottoman administration divided its multi-ethnic empire into religious rather than ethnic groups, known as the Millet system. Hence, the identity of the ethnic Turks was transformed into a religious one and the ethnic Turks were grouped as "Ottoman Muslims", alongside the rest of the Muslim millet. Nonetheless, from the very beginning of Ottoman expansion into Europe, Murad I sought to increase his influence in the region by transferring ethnic Turcoman and Tatar nomads from Asia Minor into the Balkans. This state-organized population transfer continued under the sultan’s successors who continuously sought to increase the Turkish population in the conquered lands of the empire by encouraging the Turks to voluntarily migrate or by forcefully deporting them.[108]

The Ottoman Turks' main contribution to the preservation of the Turkish character of their state was making the Ottoman Turkish language the official language of the Ottoman Empire, which was in direct contrast to the practice of other Turkish dynasties that used Arabic and Persian in their state affairs.[109] Early forms of Turkish national consciousness can be traced back to the fourteenth century when Anatolian folk poets had a tendency to use only Turkish words, and deliberately chose to avoid using Arabic and Persian expressions. This was particularly evident during the reign of Murad II (1421-1451) and was mostly connected with the Sufi mystical orders like the Bektaşi's.[109]

Many Western travelers to the Ottoman Empire noted that the term "Turk" was used by the Ottoman elite as a derogatory connotation or to classify a Turkish-speaking Ottoman; however, several writers of the Ottoman court embraced the Turkish ethnicity in their work. For example, one of the most well-known Ottoman-Turkish divan poetesses Mihri Hatun wrote the following couplet in the fifteenth century:

Şimdiki halkun katında Türklüktür itibar
(In the eye of this world’s people, being a Turk is an honor)
Keşlü tarhanalarında sum olaydum kaşki
(Would that I were garlic in their sour tarhana soup) - Ottoman poetess Mihri Hatun[110]

Nonetheless, in general, the Ottoman court favoured Türkî-i fasîh ("eloquent Turkish") in literary works which involved the use of Arab and Persian linguistic rules on eloquence. This placed a wide linguisitc gap between the written language of the literate Ottoman elite and the vernacular of the common Turkish-speaking people.[111]

By the nineteenth century the Christian millets in the Balkans turned to nationalist movements based on religio-national communities. Once they gained their independence during the various rebellions and wars, over five million Muslims died in these wars or from starvation and diseas, whilst eapproximately 5.5 to 7 million Turkish and non-Turkish Ottoman Muslims fled persecution and took refuge in Anatolia and Eastern Thrace.[112]

The surviving Ottoman-Turkish refugees (known as muhacirs) unified around a common Turkish-Islamic identity and enhanced Anatolia’s Turkish/Muslim demographic base.[113] Moreover, with the mass deportation of Armenians to the Vilayet of Syria during World War I and the population exchange between Greece and Turkey of their Muslim and Greek Orthodox minority populations, Turkey become a predominately Turkish-speaking Muslim country.[113]

End of Empire: The Rise of Turkish nationalism edit

Notes edit

^ a: This includes Turkish Cypriots and recent Turkish settlers.

^ b: The census figure for the Republic of Cyprus only includes Turkish Cypriots who are living in the recognized southern region of the island.

^ c: The Syrian Turkmen are mostly of Turkish heritage and are the descendants of settlers during Ottoman rule,[29] though Turkic migration began in the 10th century. The Ottoman settlers served as local gendarmes and were encouraged to establish and settle in strategic locations to counter the demographic weight and influence of other groups in the region.[114]

^ d: The census did not make a distinction between the Turkic populations in Iraq - grouping them all as "Turkmen" and declaring their language as "Turkish". Nonetheless, the majority of Iraqi Turkmen are the descendants of Ottoman-Turkish settlers who arrived after 1535.[115][116][117] Indeed, the term "Turkmen" seems to be a political terminology because it was first used by the British to isolate the Iraqi Turks from Turkey during the Mosul Question in the 1930s.[118]

^ e: These figures only include people of full or partial Turkish descent. The total "Turkey-related population" (including Turkish Kurds) in Germany is approximately 5 million.[119][120] Moreover, some European politicians have suggested that there are now 7 million Turks in Germany.[121]

^ f: A further 10,000–30,000 people from Bulgaria live in the Netherlands. The majority are Bulgarian Turks and are the fastest-growing group of immigrants in the Netherlands.[122]

^ g: This figure includes about 300,000 Turkish Cypriots, 150,000 mainland Turks, and smaller groups of Bulgarian Turks and Romanian Turks.[51]

^ h: A further 30,000 Bulgarian Turks live in Sweden.[123]

^ i:  The ancestry data for Australia only allows two responses for each person. Hence, it has been particularly problematic in counting the Australian-Turkish Cypriot population because they cannot declare themselves as "Australian", "Cypriot" and "Turkish".[124] Whilst their population was estimated to be 30,000 in 1993 by the Council of Europe,[125] more recent estimates range between 60,000[126] to 120,000.[127] In addition, academic estimates place the mainland Turkish community to be around 100,000.[128]

^ j:  This includes both mainland ethnic Turks and Meskhetian Turks.

^ k:  These figures only include Meskhetian Turks.

^ l: "The history of Turkey encompasses, first, the history of Anatolia before the coming of the Turks and of the civilizations—Hittite, Thracian, Hellenistic, and Byzantine—of which the Turkish nation is the heir by assimilation or example. Second, it includes the history of the Turkish peoples, including the Seljuks, who brought Islam and the Turkish language to Anatolia. Third, it is the history of the Ottoman Empire, a vast, cosmopolitan, pan-Islamic state that developed from a small Turkish amirate in Anatolia and that for centuries was a world power."[129]

^ m: The Turks are also defined by the country of origin. Turkey, once Asia Minor or Anatolia, has a very long and complex history. It was one of the major regions of agricultural development in the early Neolithic and may have been the place of origin and spread of lndo-European languages at that time. The Turkish language was imposed on a predominantly lndo-European-speaking population (Greek being the official language of the Byzantine empire), and genetically there is very little difference between Turkey and the neighboring countries. The number of Turkish invaders was probably rather small and was genetically diluted by the large number of aborigines."
"The consideration of demographic quantities suggests that the present genetic picture of the aboriginal world is determined largely by the history of Paleolithic and Neolithic people, when the greatest relative changes in population numbers took place."[130]

References edit

  1. ^ Milliyet (2007). "55 milyon kişi 'etnik olarak' Türk". Retrieved 12 September 2016. Araştırmada, toplumun etnik kimliğini ifade etmekte sıkıntı duymadığı görülüyor. Toplam 73 milyon olan nüfusun 55 milyon 484 bini etnik olarak Türk.
  2. ^ CIA. "Turkey". Retrieved 12 September 2016. Turkish 70-75% [of 79,414,269]
  3. ^ TRNC State Planning Organization (2011). "Nüfus ve Konut Sayımı" (PDF). p. 4.
  4. ^ Republic of Cyprus Statistics Service (2011). "Population Enumerated with Cypriot Citizenship, By Ethnic/Religious Group, Age and Sex (1.10.2001)". Retrieved 2016-04-26.
  5. ^ National Statistical Institute of Bulgaria (2011). "2011 Population Census in the Republic of Bulgaria (Final data)" (PDF). National Statistical Institute of Bulgaria.
  6. ^ Republic of Macedonia State Statistical Office (2005), Census of Population, Households and Dwellings in the Republic of Macedonia, 2002 (PDF), Republic of Macedonia — State Statistical Office, p. 34
  7. ^ Knowlton, MaryLee (2005), Macedonia, Marshall Cavendish, p. 66, ISBN 0-7614-1854-7, The Turks are the second largest national minority in Macedonia. Like other ethnic groups, they claim higher numbers than the census shows, somewhere between 170,000 and 200,000. The government estimates them at around 100,000.
  8. ^ Abrahams, Fred (1996), A Threat to "Stability": Human Rights Violations in Macedonia, Human Rights Watch, p. 53, ISBN 1-56432-170-3
  9. ^ Tsitselikis, Konstantinos (2012), Old and New Islam in Greece: From Historical Minorities to Immigrant Newcomers, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, p. 569, ISBN 978-9004221529
  10. ^ Greek Helsinki Monitor (1999). "Report about Compliance with the Principles of the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities (along guidelines for state reports according to Article 25.1 of the Convention)". The state has recently revised downwards its estimate of the Muslim minority, based on the 1991 census, to 98,000 from a previous estimate of 120,000; it also claims that "50% of the minority are of Turkish origin, 35% are Pomaks (an indigenous population that speaks a Slavic dialect and espoused Islam during Ottoman rule) and 15% are Roma". Our own estimates, based on the same census, are slightly lower, while the breakdown is also slightly different. There are 90,000 Muslims, of whom some 50,000 have Turkish as a mother tongue, 30,000 Pomak and 10,000 Romanes. Nevertheless, the very large majority of all Muslims, including Pomaks and Roma, have today a Turkish national identity.
  11. ^ Georgiev, Plamen K. (2009), Corruptive Patterns of Patronage in South East Europe, Springer Science & Business Media, p. 64, ISBN 978-3531914176, Among approximately 120,000 Muslims some 30.000 are Pomak, some 5000 are Gypsy, the rest being Turkish.
  12. ^ Meinardus, Ronald (2002), "Muslims: Turks, Pomaks and Gypsies", in Clogg, Richard (ed.), Minorities in Greece: Aspects of a Plural Society, C. Hurst & Co. Publishers, p. 84, ISBN 1850657068, Apart from a small group of Turks in the Dodecanese islands (Rhoides/Kos), estimated at less than 5,000 individuals...
  13. ^ Kosovo Agency of Statistics (2011). "Census 2011". Retrieved 2011-10-16.
  14. ^ OSCE (2010), "Community Profile: Kosovo Turks", Kosovo Communities Profile, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, Approximately 30,000 Kosovo Turks live in Kosovo today, while up to 250,000 people from different Kosovo communities speak or at least understand the Turkish language.
  15. ^ National Institute of Statistics (2011), Comunicat de presă privind rezultatele provizorii ale Recensământului Populaţiei şi Locuinţelor – 2011 (PDF), National Institute of Statistics (Romania), p. 10
  16. ^ Phinnemore, David (2006), The EU and Romania: Great Expectations, The Federal Trust for Education & Research, p. 157, ISBN 1-903403-78-2, Today, there are around 55,000 Turks living in Romania and they are represented as a minority in parliament.
  17. ^ Constantin, Daniela L.; Goschin, Zizi; Dragusin, Mariana (2008), "Ethnic entrepreneurship as an integration factor in civil society and a gate to religious tolerance. A spotlight on Turkish entrepreneurs in Romania", Journal for the Study of Religions and Ideologies, 7 (20): 59, The significant Turkish population living in Romania (nearly 80,000 members).
  18. ^ Federal Office of Statistics. "Population grouped according to ethnicity, by censuses 1961-1991". Federal Office of Statistics (Bosnia and Herzegovina). Retrieved 2011-10-16.
  19. ^ Ezzat, Yawooz (2012), The Treatment of Iraqi Turks Since the Aftermath of WWI: A Human Rights Perspective, Trafford Publishing, p. 58, ISBN 978-1466946040, the 1957 [census] was the only reliable source by which the size of the population could be garnered, as it was the only occasion the Turkic descendants were allowed to register as Turks... as a whole the Turkic population was 567,000.
  20. ^ Taylor, Scott (2004), Among the Others: Encounters with the Forgotten Turkmen of Iraq, Esprit de Corps, ISBN 1-895896-26-6, According to the second census of 1958, the Turkmen registry stood at 567,000...if the Turkmen simply kept pace with the rest of Iraq's birthrate, then they would now account for approximately 2,080,000 of the present 25 million inhabitants. Many Turkmen argue that their birthrate actually exceeds that of most of the other Iraqi ethnic groups. One need only visit the children-filled streets of Tal Afar to believe their claim.
  21. ^ Knights, Michael (2004), Operation Iraqi Freedom and the New Iraq: Insights and Forecasts, Washington Institute for Near East Policy, ISBN 0944029930, The 1957 Iraqi census — the last in which the Turkmens were permitted to register — counted 567,000 Turkmens counted (9 percent of the population) among Iraq's population of 6,300,000.
  22. ^ Bassem, Wassim (2016). "Iraq's Turkmens call for independent province". Al-Monitor. Iraqi Turkmens, who are citizens of Iraq with Turkish origins, have been calling for their own independent province in the Tal Afar district west of Mosul...Turkmens are a mix of Sunnis and Shiites and are the third-largest ethnicity in Iraq after Arabs and Kurds, numbering about 3 million out of the total population of about 34.7 million, according to 2013 data from the Iraqi Ministry of Planning. {{cite web}}: no-break space character in |quote= at position 91 (help)
  23. ^ Turkish Embassy in Algeria (2008), Cezayir Ülke Raporu 2008, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Cezayir'de, Türkiye'nin rakamlarına göre 600 bin, Fransa'ya göre ise 2 milyon Türk asıllı insan yaşıyor.
  24. ^ a b c d e f g Akar, Metin (1993), "Fas Arapçasında Osmanlı Türkçesinden Alınmış Kelimeler", Türklük Araştırmaları Dergisi, 7: 94–95, Günümüzde, Arap dünyasında hâlâ Türk asıllı aileler mevcuttur. Bunların nüfusu Irak'ta 2 milyon, Suriye'de 3.5 milyon, Mısır'da 1.5, Cezayir'de 1 milyon, Tunus'ta 500 bin, Suudî Arabistan'da 150 bin, Libya'da 50 bin, Ürdün'de 60 bin olmak üzere 8.760.000 civarındadır. Bu ailelerin varlığı da Arap lehçelerindeki Türkçe ödünçleşmeleri belki artırmış olabilir.
  25. ^ a b Oxford Business Group (2008), The Report: Algeria 2008, Oxford Business Group, p. 10, ISBN 978-1-902339-09-2, ...the Algerian population reached 34.8 million in January 2006...Algerians of Turkish descent still represent 5% of the population and live mainly in the big cities [accounting to 1.74 million] {{citation}}: |last= has generic name (help)
  26. ^ Enab Baladi (2015). "تركمان سوريا والعودة إلى الجذور". رغم غياب الإحصائيات الدقيقة لأعداد التركمان في سوريا، إلى أن أعدادهم تقدر ما بين 750 ألف إلى مليون ونصف تركماني، يتركز معظمهم في المناطق الشمالية مثل حلب، اللاذقية، حمص وحماة، بالإضافة إلى دمشق.
  27. ^ Khalifa, Mustafa (2013), The impossible partition of Syria, Arab Reform Initiative, p. 4, Turkmen are the third largest ethnic group in Syria, making up around 4-5% of the population. Some estimations indicate that they are the second biggest group, outnumbering Kurds, drawing on the fact that Turkmen are divided into two groups: the rural Turkmen who make up 30% of the Turkmen in Syria and who have kept their mother tongue, and the urban Turkmen who have become Arabised and no longer speak their mother language.
  28. ^ BBC (2015). "Who are the Turkmen in Syria?". There are no reliable population figures, but they are estimated to number between about half a million and 3.5 million.
  29. ^ a b The New York Times (2015). "Who Are the Turkmens of Syria?". The New York Times. In the context of Syria, though, the term ["Turkmen"] is used somewhat differently, to refer mainly to people of Turkish heritage whose families migrated to Syria from Anatolia during the centuries of the Ottoman period — and thus would be closer kin to the Turks of Turkey than to the Turkmens of Central Asia...Q. How many are there? A. No reliable figures are available, and estimates on the number of Turkmens in Syria and nearby countries vary widely, from the hundreds of thousands up to 3 million or more.
  30. ^ Nkrumah, Gamal (2016). "Did the Turks sweeten Egypt's kitty?". Al-Ahram Weekly. Retrieved 30 October 2016. Today, the number of ethnic Turks in Egypt varies considerably, with estimates ranging from 100,000 to 1,500,000. Most have intermingled in Egyptian society and are almost indistinguishable from non-Turkish Egyptians, even though a considerable number of Egyptians of Turkish origin are bilingual.
  31. ^ Karpat, Kemal H. (2004), "introduction", Studies on Turkish Politics and Society: Selected Articles and Essays, BRILL, ISBN 90-04-13322-4, With about 200,000 in Saudi Arabia...
  32. ^ Al-Akhbar (2011). "Lebanese Turks Seek Political and Social Recognition". Retrieved 2012-03-02. ...today number nearly 80,000.
  33. ^ a b Pan, Chia-Lin (1949), "The Population of Libya", Population Studies, 3 (1): p.103 and p.121 (table 7), doi:10.1080/00324728.1949.10416359 {{citation}}: |page= has extra text (help)
  34. ^ Conradt, David P.; Langenbacher, Eric (2013), The German Polity, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, pp. 114–115, ISBN 978-1442216464, Turks are by far the largest minority group, with 2.5 to 4 million residents of Germany having full or partly Turkish ancestry.
  35. ^ Curtis, Michael (2013), Jews, Antisemitism, and the Middle East, Transaction Publishers, p. 69, ISBN 978-1412851411, In Germany today about three to four million Turks, about 5 percent of the total population, reside.
  36. ^ Kötter, I; Vonthein, R; Günaydin, I; Müller, C; Kanz, L; Zierhut, M; Stübiger, N (2003), "Behçet's Disease in Patients of German and Turkish Origin- A Comparative Study", in Zouboulis, Christos (ed) (ed.), Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, Volume 528, Springer, p. 55, ISBN 0-306-47757-2, Today, more than 4 million people of Turkish origin are living in Germany. {{citation}}: |editor-first= has generic name (help)
  37. ^ Rizvi, Kishwar (2015), The Transnational Mosque: Architecture and Historical Memory in the Contemporary Middle East, University of North Carolina Press, p. 36, ISBN 978-1469621173, ...at least 4 million people of Turkish descent living in Germany.
  38. ^ Audretsch, David B.; Lehmann, Erik E. (2016), The Seven Secrets of Germany: Economic Resilience in an Era of Global Turbulence, Oxford University Press, p. 130, ISBN 978-0190258696, By 2010 the number of Turkish descent living in Germany had increased to four million.
  39. ^ Weaver-Hightower, Rebecca (2014), "Introduction", in Weaver-Hightower, Rebecca; Hulme, Peter (eds.), Postcolonial Film: History, Empire, Resistance, Routledge, p. 13, ISBN 978-1134747276, By the end of the first decade of the twenty-first century there were around four million people of Turkish descent living in Germany...
  40. ^ Volkan, Vamik D. (2014), Enemies on the Couch: A Psychopolitical Journey Through War and Peace, Pitchstone Publishing, ISBN 978-1939578112, Today, for example, it is estimated that more than four million Turks and German citizens with part of full Turkish ancestry live in Germany alone.
  41. ^ Fernández-Kelly, Patricia (2015), "Assimilation through Transnationalism: A Theoretical Synthesis", in Portes, Alejandro; Fernández-Kelly, Patricia (eds.), The State and the Grassroots: Immigrant Transnational Organizations in Four Continents, Berghahn Books, p. 305, ISBN 978-1782387350, Nearly fifty years later, close to four million Turks and their children continue to reside in the margins of German society
  42. ^ Taras, Raymond (2015), ""Islamophobia never stands still": race, religion, and culture", in Nasar, Meer (ed.), Racialization and Religion: Race, Culture and Difference in the Study of Antisemitism and Islamophobia, Routledge, p. 46, ISBN 978-1317432449, ...about four million Turks are thought to live in Germany.
  43. ^ Fischer, Tristan (2015), History Future Now, Lulu Press, p. 122, ISBN 978-1329707467, By 2012 over 4 million people, around 5% of the German population, were of Turkish descent.
  44. ^ Feltes, Thomas; Marquardt, Uwe; Schwarz, Stefan (2013), "Policing in Germany: Developments in the Last 20 Years", in Mesko, Gorazd; Fields, Charles B.; Lobnikar, Branko; Sotlar, Andrej (eds.), Handbook on Policing in Central and Eastern Europe, Springer, p. 93, ISBN 978-1461467205, Approximately four million people with Turkish roots are living in Germany at this time [2013].
  45. ^ Temel, Bülent (2013), "Candidacy versus Membership: Is Turkey the Greatest Beneficiary of the European Union?", The Great Catalyst: European Union Project and Lessons from Greece and Turkey, Lexington Books, p. 345, ISBN 978-0739174494, Today, there are nearly four million people with Turkish ancestry in Germany, which makes them the largest minority in Germany (5 percent of 82 million people).
  46. ^ Leveau, Remy; Hunter, Shireen T. (2002), "Islam in France", in Hunter, Shireen T. (ed.), Islam, Europe's Second Religion: The New Social, Cultural, and Political Landscape, Greenwood Publishing Group, p. 6, ISBN 0275976092, This number may be too small, as the number of Turks in France approaches 500,000.
  47. ^ L'Express (2014). "Face à l'islam de France, du déni à la paralysie". Retrieved 11 September 2016. Depuis dix ans, ce chiffre est régulièrement battu en brèche: les estimations hautes décrivent une France qui compterait 4 à 5 millions d'Algériens et descendants, autour de 3 millions de Marocains, 1 million de Tunisiens, 2 millions d'Africains du Sahel, 800 000 Turcs, etc.
  48. ^ a b c d The Guardian (1 August 2011). "UK immigration analysis needed on Turkish legal migration, say MPs". Retrieved 1 August 2011. The Home Office says that there are about 150,000 Turkish nationals living in Britain at present, with about 500,000 people of Turkish origin living in the country altogether. But Germany, Austria, the Netherlands and France all have larger Turkish communities which are more likely to attract a new wave of legal migration{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  49. ^ Dutch News (2016). "Dutch Turks urged to keep their cool in Turkish coup aftermath". Retrieved 11 September 2016. There are some 500,000 people of Turkish origin in the Netherlands.
  50. ^ Dutch News (2016). "Rotterdam mayor appeals to Dutch Turks to stay calm in coup aftermath". Retrieved 11 September 2016. There are some 500,000 people of Turkish origin in the Netherlands.
  51. ^ a b Home Affairs Committee (2011), Implications for the Justice and Home Affairs area of the accession of Turkey to the European Union (PDF), The Stationery Office, p. EV 34, ISBN 978-0-215-56114-5, There are approximately 150,000 Turkish nationals in the UK at present, about 500,000 people of Turkish origin in the UK, including Cypriot Turks (about 300,000) and Turks with Bulgarian or Romanian citizenship.
  52. ^ BBC News (2010). "Turkey's ambassador to Austria prompts immigration spat". Retrieved 10 November 2010. An estimated 350,000 people of Turkish origin live in Austria.
  53. ^ Erdagöz, Hakan (2015), Austria's Law on Islam and Its Implications for Difference, Minority Accommodation, and Islamophobia, Research Turkey, For instance, today there are approximately more than 500,000 immigrants of Turkish origin in Austria.
  54. ^ Taras, Raymond (2012), Xenophobia and Islamophobia in Europe, Edinburgh University Press, p. 160, ISBN 978-0748654871, It follows that large Muslim minorities like the Turks - who total over 200,000 in Belgium... .
  55. ^ De Morgen. "Koning Boudewijnstichting doorprikt clichés rond Belgische Turken". Retrieved 15 November 2010.
  56. ^ Haab, Katharina; Bolzman, Claudio; Kugler, Andrea; Yilmaz, Ozcan (2010), Diaspora et communautes de migrants de Turquie en Suisse (PDF), Office federal des migrations, p. 5, Sixieme groupe de migrants en importance dans le pays, la diaspora de Turquie en Susisse compte quelque 120,000 personnes.
  57. ^ Swedish Ministry for Foreign Affairs. "Ankara Historia". Retrieved 14 April 2011. I Sverige bor idag ca 100 000 personer med turkisk bakgrund.
  58. ^ DR Online (2008). "Tyrkere langer ud efter trossamfund". Retrieved 2011-01-22. Ud af cirka 200.000 muslimer i Danmark har 70.000 tyrkiske rødder, og de udgør dermed langt den største muslimske indvandrergruppe.
  59. ^ Jyllands-Posten (2008). "Tyrkisk afstand fra Islamisk Trossamfund". Retrieved 2010-08-09. Der er omkring 200.000 muslimer i Danmark. Heraf har 70.000 tyrkiske rødder og udgør dermed den største muslimske indvandrergruppe.
  60. ^ U.S. Census Bureau. "TOTAL ANCESTRY REPORTED Universe: Total ancestry categories tallied for people with one or more ancestry categories reported 2013 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates". Retrieved 3 October 2012.
  61. ^ Farkas, Evelyn N. (2003), Fractured States and U.S. Foreign Policy: Iraq, Ethiopia, and Bosnia in the 1990s, Palgrave Macmillan, p. 40, ISBN 1403963738, approximately 500,000 Turkish Americans...
  62. ^ Encyclopedia of Cleveland History. "Immigration and Ethnicity: Turks". Retrieved 7 February 2010. Currently, the Turkish population of northeast Ohio is estimated at about 1,000 (an estimated 500,000 Turks live in the United States).
  63. ^ The Washington Diplomat (2010). "Census Takes Aim to Tally'Hard to Count' Populations". Retrieved 5 May 2011. ...the estimated 500,000 Turks now living in the United States.
  64. ^ Statistics Canada. "2011 National Household Survey: Data tables". Retrieved 11 February 2014.
  65. ^ Australian Bureau of Statistics. "Community Information Survey" (PDF). Retrieved 11 September 2016. In the 2011 Census... of the total ancestry responses, 66,919 responses were towards Turkish ancestry.
  66. ^ Milliyet. "Avustralya'dan THY'ye çağrı var". Retrieved 11 September 2016. Melbourne'de yaklaşık 300 bin Türk'ün yaşadığını...
  67. ^ Демоскоп Weekly. "Всероссийская перепись населения 2010 г. Национальный состав населения Российской Федерации". Retrieved 12 September 2016. 105,058 Turks and 4,825 Meskhetian Turks.
  68. ^ Ryazantsev, Sergey V. (2009), "Turkish Communities in the Russian Federation", International Journal on Multicultural Societies, 11 (2): 172, ...the exact population size of the Turkish groups in Russia is unknown. However, it is obvious that it exceeds the numbers in the official data and is at least 120,000-150,000 people.
  69. ^ Агентство РК по статистике. "ПЕРЕПИСЬ НАСЕЛЕНИЯ РЕСПУБЛИКИ КАЗАХСТАН 2009 ГОДА" (PDF). p. 10. Retrieved 2011-02-13.
  70. ^ a b c d e Al Jazeera (2014). "Ahıska Türklerinin 70 yıllık sürgünü". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 2016-07-05. Sürgüne Uğramış Ahıska Türkleri: Kazakistan 180,000; Rusya 95,000; Azerbayjan 87,000; Türkiye 76,000; Kırgızistan 42,000; Özbekistan 38,000; ABD 16,000; Ukrayna 8,000; Gürcistan 1,500; KKTC 180.
  71. ^ a b c d e Blacklock, Denika (2005), Finding Durable Solutions for the Meskhetians (PDF), European Centre for Minority Issues, p. 7-13
  72. ^ National Statistical Committee of the Kyrgyz Republic (2009), Kyrgyzstan: Findings of the 2009 Kyrgyz Population and Housing Census, Volume VII (PDF), National Statistical Committee of the Kyrgyz Republic, p. 31
  73. ^ Переписи населения Азербайджана 1979, 1989, 1999, 2009 годов
  74. ^ UNHCR (1999), Background Paper on Refugees and Asylum Seekers from Azerbaijan (PDF), United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, p. 14, The global number of Meskhetian Turks in Azerbaijan is evaluated at 100,000 persons.
  75. ^ NATO Parliamentary Assembly. "Minorities in the South Caucasus: Factor of Instability?". Retrieved 16 January 2012. The Baku Institute of Peace and Democracy estimated that between 90,000 and 110,000 Meskhetian Turks lived in Azerbaijan in 2001, where they enjoy generally favourable state policies and attitudes.
  76. ^ Демоскоп Weekly. "Всесоюзная перепись населения 1989 года. Национальный состав населения по республикам СССР". Retrieved 2009-11-10.
  77. ^ Asgabat. "Национальный и религиозный состав населения Туркменистана сегодня". Retrieved 2016-05-27.
  78. ^ State Statistics Service of Ukraine. "Ukrainian Census (2001):The distribution of the population by nationality and mother tongue". Retrieved 16 January 2012.
  79. ^ a b Hajioannou, Xenia; Tsiplakou, Stavroula (2016), "Language policy and language planning in Cyprus", in Kaplan, Robert B.; Baldauf, Richard B.; Kamwangamalu, Nkonko (eds.), Language Planning in Europe: Cyprus, Iceland and Luxembourg, Routledge, p. 81, ISBN 978-1136872808, The Cyprus Constitution (Articles 2 and 3) recognizes two communities (Greek and Turkish) and three minority religious groups: the Maronites, who belong to the Eastern Catholic Church; the Armenian Cypriots; and the Latins, who are Roman Catholics of European or Levantine descent.
  80. ^ Goodman, Jane E. (2005), Berber Culture on the World Stage: From Village to Video, Indiana University Press, p. 7, ISBN 0253111455, From early on, the French viewed North Africa through a Manichean lens. Arab and Berber became the primary ethnic categories through which the French classified the population (Lorcin 1995: 2). This occurred despite the fact that a diverse and fragmented populace comprised not only various Arab and Berber tribal groups but also Turks, Andalusians (descended from Moors exiled from Spain during the Crusades), Kouloughlis (offspring of Turkish men and North African women), blacks (mostly slaves or gormer slaves), and Jews.
  81. ^ Epton, Nina (1949), Journey under the Crescent Moon, Victor Gollancz Ltd, p. 258, ASIN B0007J8LYG, The result of Turkish domination has remained, ethnically, in the Kulughlis who are descendants of Turkish marriages with Arab women.
  82. ^ a b Parzymies, Anna (1985), Anthroponymie Algérienne: Noms de Famille Modernes d'origine Turque, Éditions scientifiques de Pologne, p. 109, ISBN 83-01-03434-3, Parmi les noms de famille d'origine turque, les plus nombreux sont ceux qui expriment une provenance ou une origine ethnique, c.-à-d., les noms qui sont dérivés de toponymes ou d'ethnonymes turcs.
  83. ^ Johnson, Mary Margaret (2010), "Algeria", I Survived Traveling and Living in the Middle East for Five Years, Dorrance Publishing, p. 26, ISBN 978-1434951854, Algeria's population, a mixture of Arab, Berber, Turkish and West African origin, number nearly 30 million and is 99% Moslem.
  84. ^ a b Amari, Chawki (2012), Que reste-t-il des Turcs et des Français en Algérie?, Slate Afrique, Les Turcs ou leurs descendants en Algérie sont bien considérés, ont même une association (Association des Turcs algériens), sont souvent des lettrés se fondant naturellement dans la société...Les Kouloughlis (kulughlis en Turc) sont des descendants de Turcs ayant épousé des autochtones pendant la colonisation (la régence) au XVIème et XVIIème siècle...Ce qu'il reste des Turcs en Algérie? De nombreux éléments culturels, culinaires ou architecturaux, de la musique,... Des mots et du vocabulaire, des noms patronymiques comme Othmani ou Osmane (de l'empire Ottoman), Stambouli (d'Istambul), Torki (Turc) ou des noms de métiers ou de fonctions, qui sont devenus des noms de famille avec le temps.
  85. ^ The Rotarian (1969), Focus of Tunisia, vol. 115, p. 56, The population [of Tunisia]...is made up mostly of people of Arab, Berber, and Turkish descent
  86. ^ a b O'Halloran, Kate (2009), "Tunisia (Official name: Tunisian Republic)", in Campo, Juan Eduardo (ed.), Encyclopedia of Islam, Infobase Publishing, p. 672, ISBN 978-1438126968, ...most of whom follow the Maliki Legal school. Others, claiming Turkish ancestry, follow the Hanafi Legal school.
  87. ^ a b Jacobs, Daniel; Morris, Peter (2001), The Rough Guide to Tunisia, Rough Guides, ISBN 1858287480, The majority of Tunisians have always belonged to the Malekite school of the Sunni orthodoxy (their mosques easily recognizable by square minarets). The Turks brought with them the teaching of the Hanefite school (these mosques have octagonal minarets), which still survives among Turkish-descended families... {{citation}}: no-break space character in |quote= at position 281 (help)
  88. ^ a b Ghorbal, Samy (2007), Que reste-t-il des grandes familles ?, Jeune Afrique
  89. ^ a b Khouaja, Ahmed (1961), "La biographie familiale comme source de connaissance historique: Le cas de la famille Ben Romdhan de Mahdia (Sahel tunisien) à l'époque coloniale et post-colonial", La pensée sauvage, C.L. Strauss: 89, La famille Ben Romdhan de Mahdia est une famille d'origine turque se réclamant comme toutes les familles notabiliaires de Mahdia (Hamza, Turki, Gazdagli, Agha, Snène…) du rite hanéfite.
  90. ^ a b Ganiage, Jean (1966), "La population de la Tunisie vers 1860. Essai d'évaluation d'après les registres fiscaux", Population (French Edition), 21 (5), Institut national d'études démographiques: 89, doi:10.2307/1528138, JSTOR 1528138, De son ancienne grandeur, Mahdia n'avait conservé que l'originalité de son peuplement, la présence de familles d'origine turque dont les noms se sont perpétués jusqu'à nos jours.
  91. ^ a b Walters, Keith (2006), "North Africa / Nordafrika", in Ammon, Ulrich; Dittmar, NorbertB.; Mattheier, Kalus J.; Trudgill, Peter (eds.), Sociolinguistics: An International Handbook of the Science of Language and Society, Part 3, Walter de Gruyter, p. 1942, ISBN 3110184184, National censuses [of Mauritania, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya] do not query this issue [of language and ethnicity], such ethnicity-based distinctions being seen as antithetical to fostering nationalism.
  92. ^ a b Gamm, Niki (2013), The keys to Oran, Hürriyet Daily News, How many there are in today's population is unclear. Estimates range from five percent to ten percent out of a total population of around 37 million.
  93. ^ a b Hizmetli, Sabri (1953), "Osmanlı Yönetimi Döneminde Tunus ve Cezayir'in Eğitim ve Kültür Tarihine Genel Bir Bakış" (PDF), Ankara Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, 32, Ankara University: 10, Bunun açık belgelerinden birisi, aradan birbuçuk yüzyıllık sömürgecilik döneminin geçmiş olmasına rağmen, Cezayirli ve Tunusluların 25 %'nin Türk asıllı olduğunu övünerek söylemesi, sosyal ve kültürel hayatta Türk kültürünün varlığını hissettirmeye devam etmesi, halk dilinde binlerce Türkçe kelimenin yaşamasıdir.
  94. ^ Malcolm, Peter; Losleben, Elizabeth (2004), Libya, Marshall Cavendish, p. 62, ISBN 0761417028, There are some Libyans who think of themselves as Turkish, or descendants of Turkish soldiers who settled in the area in the days of the Ottoman Empire.
  95. ^ Hajjaji, Salim Ali (1962), The Geography of Libya, Stanford University, p. 147, The Turkish rule in Libya left ethnic traces among the Libyans, the so-called Kologhlis
  96. ^ Simon, Patrick (2011), "Collecting ethnic statistics in Europe: A Review", Ethnic and Racial Studies, 35 (8), Routledge: see p.1370-75
  97. ^ Presidency of the Republic of Cyprus. "The Constitution of the Republic of Cyprus" (PDF). Retrieved 2016-04-26. Article 1...the Greek and the Turkish Communities of Cyprus respectively...
  98. ^ a b Council of Europe. "List of declarations made with respect to treaty No. 148". Retrieved 2013-12-21.
  99. ^ Anita Skelin Horvat. "Language Policy in Istria, Croatia –Legislation Regarding Minority Language Use" (PDF) (in Bulgarian). p. 51. Retrieved 2015-11-22.
  100. ^ Trudgill, Peter; Schreier, Daniel (2006), "Greece and Cyprus / Griechenland und Zypern", in Ulrich, Ammon (ed.), Sociolinguistics / Soziolinguistik, Walter de Gruyter, p. 1886, ISBN 3110199874
  101. ^ European Centre for Minority Issues Kosovo. "Community Profile: Turkish Community" (PDF). p. 2. Retrieved 2016-04-07.
  102. ^ Dzankic, Jelena (2016), Citizenship in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia and Montenegro: Effects of Statehood and Identity Challenges, Routledge, p. 81, ISBN 978-1317165798
  103. ^ Al-Shahi, Ahmed; Lawless, Richard (2013), "Introduction", Middle East and North African Immigrants in Europe: Current Impact; Local and National Responses, Routledge, p. 13, ISBN 978-1136872808
  104. ^ a b c d e f g Leiser, Gary (2006), "Turks", in Meri, Josef W. (ed.), Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia, Volume 1, Routledge, pp. 837–838, ISBN 0415966906
  105. ^ Bacik, Gokhan (2010), "The Nationalist Action Party: The Transformation of the Transnational Right in Turkey", in Duhram, Martin; Power, Margaret (eds.), New Perspectives on the Transnational Right, Palgrave Macmillan, p. 117, ISBN 978-0230115521
  106. ^ Imber, Colin (2009), The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power, Palgrave Macmillan, p. 3, ISBN 978-1137014061
  107. ^ Kushner, David (1977), The Rise of Turkish Nationalism, 1876-1908, Frank Cass, p. 50, ISBN 0714630756
  108. ^ Agoston, Gabor (2011), "The Ottomans: From Frontier Principality to Empire", in Olsen, John Andreas; Gray, Colin S. (eds.), The Practice of Strategy: From Alexander the Great to the Present, Oxford University Press, p. 116, ISBN 978-0199608638
  109. ^ a b Kushner 1977, 2.
  110. ^ Havlioğlu, Didem (2010), "On the margins and between the lines: Ottoman women poets from the fifteenth to the twentieth centuries", Turkish Historical Review, 1, BRILL: 25, doi:10.1163/187754610X494969, hdl:10161/10628
  111. ^ Lewis, Geoffrey (1999), The Turkish Language Reform: A Catastrophic Success, Oxford University Press, p. 6, ISBN 0191583227
  112. ^ Çağaptay, Soner (2014), The Rise of Turkey: The Twenty-First Century's First Muslim Power, University of Nebraska Press, pp. 78–79, ISBN 978-1612346519
  113. ^ a b Çağaptay 2014, 79.
  114. ^ Heras, Nicholas A. (2013), "Syrian Turkmen Join Opposition Forces in Pursuit of a New Syrian Identity", Terrorism Monitor, 11 (11), Syria's Turkmen communities are descendants of Oghuz Turkish tribal migrants who began moving from Central Asia into the area of modern-day Syria during the 10th century, when the Turkic Seljuk dynasty ruled much of the region. Under the Ottomans, Turkmen were encouraged to establish villages throughout the rural hinterlands of several Syrian cities in order to counter the demographic weight and influence of the settled and nomadic and semi-nomadic Arab tribesmen that populated the region. Syrian Turkmen were also settled to serve as local gendarmes to help assert Ottoman authority over roads and mountain passes in diverse regions such as the Alawite-majority, northwestern coastal governorate of Latakia. After the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire in 1918, communities of Turkmen continued to reside in the country.
  115. ^ Taylor, Scott (2004), Among the Others: Encounters with the Forgotten Turkmen of Iraq, Esprit de Corps Books, p. 31, ISBN 1-895896-26-6, The largest number of Turkmen immigrants followed the army of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificant when he counquered all or Iraq in 1535. Throughout their reign, the Ottomans encouraged the settlement of immigrant Turkmen along the loosely formed boundary that divided Arab and Kurdish settlements in northern Iraq.
  116. ^ International Crisis Group (2008), Turkey and the Iraqi Kurds: Conflict or Cooperation?, Middle East Report N°81 –13 November 2008: International Crisis Group, p. 16, Turkomans are descendents of Ottoman Empire-era soldiers, traders and civil servants. A predominantly urban population, they are distributed over a number of former garrison towns situated along prominent trade arteries in northern Iraq stretching from the Syrian to the Iranian border, including such major ones as Tel Afar, Mosul, Kirkuk, Tuz Khurmatu, Kifri, Khanaqin and Mandali. In Kirkuk, Turkomans constituted a plurality in the city, ahead of Kurds and Arabs, at the time of the 1957 census.{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
  117. ^ Jawhar, Raber Tal'at (2010), "The Iraqi Turkmen Front", in Catusse, Myriam; Karam, Karam (eds.) (eds.), Returning to Political Parties?, The Lebanese Center for Policy Studies, pp. 313–328, ISBN 978-1-886604-75-9, There's a strong conflict of opinions regarding the origins of Iraqi Turkmen, however, it is certain that they settled down during the Ottoman rule in the northwest of Mosul, whence they spread to eastern Baghdad. {{citation}}: |editor2-first= has generic name (help)
  118. ^ Geoff, Hann; Dabrowska, Karen; Greaves, Tina Townsend (2015), Iraq: The ancient sites and Iraqi Kurdistan, Bradt Travel Guides, p. 15, ISBN 978-1841624884
  119. ^ Karanfil, Gökçen; Şavk, Serkan (2014), "An Introduction from the Editors", in Karanfil, Gökçen; Şavk, Serkan (eds.), Imaginaries Out of Place: Cinema, Transnationalism and Turkey, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, p. 3, ISBN 978-1443868600, Today, with the numbers reaching nearly five million, Germany accomodates the largest Turkey-related population by far in comparison to any other country.
  120. ^ Markovic, Nina; Yasmeen, Samina (2016), "Engaging Europe's Muslims: The European Union and Muslim Migrants during Eurozone Crisis", in Yasmeen, Samina; Markovic, Nina (eds.), Muslim Citizens in the West: Spaces and Agents of Inclusion and Exclusion, Routledge, p. 65, ISBN 978-1317091219, Demographic data on religious and ethnic backgrounds is difficult to gather as much of the data collection in Germany is based on nationality by country rather than ethnic group or religion...General consensus, however, suggests that Germany has 82 million residents...of which more than 5 million are...Turks and Kurds...
  121. ^ Szyszkowitz, Tessa (2005), "Germany", in Von Hippel, Karin (ed.), Europe Confronts Terrorism, Palgrave Macmillan, p. 53, ISBN 0230524591, A Senior European official in Brussels...remarking..."It is a little late to start the debate about being an immigrant country now, when already seven million Turks live in Germany".
  122. ^ The Sophia Echo. "Turkish Bulgarians fastest-growing group of immigrants in The Netherlands". Retrieved 26 July 2009.
  123. ^ Laczko, Stacher & von Koppenfels 2002, 187.
  124. ^ Cahill, Desmond (2016), "Turkish Cypriots in Australia: The Evolution of a Multi-hypthenated Community and the Impact of Transnational Events", in Michael, Michális (ed.), Reconciling Cultural and Political Identities in a Globalized World: Perspectives on Australia-Turkey Relations, Springer, p. 214, ISBN 978-1137493156
  125. ^ European Population Conference: Proceedings, Geneva, 23-26 March 1993, Volume 2, Council of Europe, 1993, p. 353, ISBN 9287125511, There are also approximately 30 000 Turkish Cypriots living in Australia and about 6 000 in Canada and the U.S.A.
  126. ^ Star Kibris. "Olmalı Mı Olmamalı Mı?". Retrieved 15 September 2016. Avustralya'da bizim bildiğimiz kadarıyla Melborn ve Sydney'de Kıbrıslı Türk'ler yoğunlaşmış durumdadır ve sayıları 60,000 civarındadır.
  127. ^ Star Kibris. ""Sözünüzü tutun"". Retrieved 15 September 2016. Kıbrıslı Türklerin 300 bin kadarı İngiltere'de, 500 bini Türkiye'de, 120 bini Avustralya'da, 5 bini ABD'de, bin 800'ü Kanada'da, çok az bir popülasyon Güney Afrika Cumhuriyeti'nde, bin 600'ü Yeni Zellanda'da, 2 bin kadarının da Almanya'da olduğu tahmin ediliyor.
  128. ^ Hopkins, Liza (2011), "A Contested Identity: Resisting the Category Muslim-Australian", Immigrants & Minorities, 29 (1), Routledge: 116, doi:10.1080/02619288.2011.553139, S2CID 145324792
  129. ^ Steven A. Glazer (22 March 2011). "Turkey: Country Studies". Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Retrieved 15 June 2013.
  130. ^ L. Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza; Paolo, Menozzi; Alberto, Piazza (1994). The history and geography of human genes. Princeton University Press. pp. 243, 299. ISBN 978-0-691-08750-4. Retrieved 14 May 2013.
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