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User:Est. 2021/sandbox/Etruscan

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Timeline edit

 
Tyrsenian languages
 
Villanovan culture
 
Etruscan civilization
Proto-Villanovan culture 1200–901 BC
Etruscan civilization
(900–27 BC)[1] 		Villanovan period
(900–720 BC) 		Villanovan I 900–800 BC
Villanovan II 800–720 BC
Villanovan III (Bologna area) 720-680 BC [2]
Villanovan IV (Bologna area) 680-540 BC [2]
Orientalizing period
(720–580 BC) 		Early Orientalizing 720–680 BC
Middle Orientalizing 680–625 BC
Late Orientalizing 625–580 BC
Archaic period
(580–480 BC) 		Archaic 580–480 BC
Classical period
(480–320 BC) 		Classical 480–320 BC
Hellenistic period
(320–27 BC) 		Hellenistic 320–27 BC

Sources edit

Historiography

Evidence edit

Archeologic evidence edit

  • A 2012 survey of the previous 30 years’ archaeological findings, based on excavations of the major Etruscan cities, showed a continuity of culture from the last phase of the Bronze Age (12th–10th century BC) to the Iron Age (9th–8th century BC). This is evidence that the Etruscan civilization, which emerged around 900 BC, was built by people whose ancestors had inhabited that region for at least the previous 200 years,[19] as has also been confirmed by anthropological and genetic studies.[20][21] Based on this cultural continuity, there is now a consensus among archeologists that Proto-Etruscan culture developed, during the last phase of the Bronze Age, from the indigenous Proto-Villanovan culture, and that the subsequent Iron Age Villanovan culture is most accurately described as an early phase of the Etruscan civilization.[10]
  • The Elder Futhark runic alphabet is derived from the Etruscan alphabet.[22][23] The 4th century BC Negau helmet inscription features a Germanic name, Harigastiz, in a North Etruscan alphabet, and may be a testimony of the earliest contact of Germanic speakers with alphabetic writing. Similarly, the Meldorf inscription of 50 may qualify as "proto-runic" use of the Latin alphabet by Germanic speakers. The Raetic "alphabet of Bolzano" in particular seems to fit the letter shapes well.[24] Rhaetic is largely accepted as being closely related to Etruscan.[25] The spearhead of Kovel, dated to 200 AD, sometimes advanced as evidence of a peculiar Gothic variant of the runic alphabet, bears an inscription tilarids that may in fact be in an Old Italic rather than a runic alphabet, running right to left with a T and a D closer to the Latin or Etruscan than to the Bolzano or runic alphabets. Perhaps an "eclectic" approach can yield the best results for the explanation of the origin of the runes: most shapes of the letters can be accounted for when deriving them from several distinct North Italic writing systems: The p rune has a parallel in the Camunic alphabet, while it has been argued that d derives from the shape of the letter san (= ś) in Lepontic where it seems to represent the sound /d/.[26]

Linguistic evidence edit

Writing edit

Further information: Old Italic scripts, Etruscan alphabet § Letters, and Elder Futhark

The following table shows the ancient Italic scripts that are presumed to be related to the Etruscan alphabet. Symbols that are assumed to be correspondent are placed on the same column. Many symbols occur with two or more variant forms in the same script; only one variant is shown here. The notations [←] and [→] indicate that the shapes shown were used when writing right-to-left and left-to-right, respectively.

Warning: For the languages marked [?] the appearance of the "Letters" in the table is whatever one's browser's Unicode font shows for the corresponding code points in the Old Italic Unicode block. The same code point represents different symbol shapes in different languages; therefore, to display those glyph images properly one needs to use a Unicode font specific to that language.

Phoenician
Letter [←]                                            
Value ʾ b g d h w z ḥ ṭ y k l m n s ʿ p ṣ q r š t
Western Greek [27][28]
Letter [→]                                                  
Value a b ɡ d e w dz~z~zd h tʰ i k l m n ks o p ts~s k r s t u ks pʰ kʰ
Transcription Α Β Γ Δ Ε Ϝ Ζ Η Θ Ι Κ Λ Μ Ν Ξ Ο Π Ϻ Ϙ Ρ Σ Τ Υ X Φ Ψ
Old Italic (Unicode block) [29]
Letter [←] 𐌀 𐌁 𐌂 𐌃 𐌄 𐌅 𐌆 𐌇 𐌈 𐌉

numeral: 𐌠

𐌊 𐌋 𐌌 𐌍 𐌎 𐌏 𐌐 𐌑 𐌒 𐌛

𐌓

𐌔 𐌕 𐌖

numeral: 𐌡

𐌗

numeral: 𐌢

𐌘 𐌙 𐌚 𐌞 𐌝 𐌟 𐌜 south: 𐌯

north: 𐌮

numeral: 𐌣

Letter [→]      
Etruscan - from 7th century BC [30][31][32]
Marsiliana [←]                                                    
Archaic (to 5th c.) [←]                                              
Neo (4th to 1st c.) [←]                                        
Value a — k — e w ts h tʰ i k l m n — — p ʃ~s k r s~ʃ t u — pʰ kʰ f
Transcription a b c d e v z h θ ~ th ~ ѳ i k l m n ş o p ś ~ σ́ q r s t u x ~ ṡ φ ψ ~ χ 8 ~ f
Oscan - from 5th century BC [33]
Letter [←]                                          
Value a b g d ɛ v ts x? i k l m n p r s t oː f o e
Transcription A B G D E V Z H I K L M N P R S T U F Ú Í
Lepontic - 7th to 5th century BC
Letter [?][→] 𐌀

𐌅

𐌄 𐌅 𐌆 𐌈 𐌉 𐌊 𐌋 𐌌 𐌍 𐌏

ᛟ

𐌐

 

𐌑

ᛗ

ᛞ

𐌓 ᛊ

 

𐌔

𐌕 𐌖 𐌗  
Transcription A E V Z Θ I K L M N O P Ś R S T U X χ
South Picene - from 6th century BC
Letter [?][→] 𐌀 𐌁 𐌂 𐌃 𐌄 𐌅 𐌇 𐌉 𐌊 𐌋 𐌌 𐌍 𐌏 𐌐 𐌒 𐌓 𐌔 𐌕 𐌖 𐌚 𐌞 𐌝 𐌟
Transcription A B G D E V H I K L M N O P Q R S T U F Ú Í *
Elder Futhark
Early [?][←]   𐌡

 

𐌓 𐌅
(c./l.) 		𐌃 𐌊 + 𐌂

 

 

𐌗

 

𐌛

 

 

𐌕

𐌉 ᛈ
(c.) 		 
(c.) 		 

ᛊ

 

𐌣

𐌁

 

  ᛗ
(l.) 		 
(c.) 		ᛞ
(l.) 		ᛟ
(l.)
Middle [→]                                                
Later [→] ᚠ ᚢ ᚦ ᚨ ᚱ ᚲ ᚷ ᚹ ᚺ ᚾ ᛁ ᛃ ᛈ ᛇ ᛉ ᛊ ᛏ ᛒ ᛖ ᛗ ᛚ ᛜ ᛞ ᛟ
Value[34] f u θ~ð a r k g w h n i j p ɪ~æ z~r₂ s t b e m l ŋ d o
Transcription f u þ ~ th a r k g w h n i j p ï ~ æ z ~ ʀ s t b e m l ŋ d o
 
The alphabets of Este (Venetic), Magrè and Bolzano/Bozen-Sanzeno (Raetic), Sondrio (Camunic), Lugano (Lepontic)
 
The spearhead of Kovel: Gothic: [←] TᛁᛚᚨᚱᛁDᛊ, romanized: tilarids, lit. 'target rider'

Missing from the above table:

Wording edit

Languages Refs
English Old Norse Etruscan Latin
gods aesir aiser dives [35]
black surtr śur niger
Surt (fire god) Surtr Śuri Vulcan
Odin (father god) Óðinn(az)[b] Tin(as)[c] Iūpiter
Note
*Wōðuna(z) › Voltumna
ð = d+t = θ (as in Pyrgi Tablets)
Bibliography
  • Crawford, Jackson (2021-07-14). Word Origins: Coincidence vs. Correspondence.

Genetic evidence edit

 
Etruscan votive heads, IV-II century BC

There have been a number of genetic studies of Etruscans and modern Tuscans compared with other populations, some of which indicate the local, European origin of Etruscans and others supportive of an allochthonous origin. In general, the direct testing of ancient Etruscan DNA has supported a deep, local origin, while the testing of modern samples as a proxy for Etruscans is rather inconclusive and inconsistent.[36][37]

2013 (2004, 2007) edit

  • An mtDNA study published in 2013 concluded that the Etruscans' mtDNA appears very similar to that of Neolithic population from Central Europe and to other Tuscan populations.[38][39] This coincides with the Rhaetic language, which was spoken south and north of the Alps in the area of the Urnfield culture of Central Europe. The Villanovan culture, the early period of the Etruscan civilization, derives from the Proto-Villanovan culture that branched from the Urnfield culture around 1200 BC.

The very large mtDNA study from 2013 extracted and typed the hypervariable region of mitochondrial DNA of 14 individuals buried in two Etruscan necropoleis, analyzing them along with previously analyzed Etruscan mtDNA, other ancient European mtDNA, modern and Medieval samples from Tuscany, and 4,910 modern individuals from the Mediterranean basin. The ancient (30 Etruscans, 27 Medieval Tuscans) and modern DNA sequences (370 Tuscans) were subjected to several million computer simulation runs, showing that the Etruscans can be considered ancestral to Medieval and, especially in the subpopulations from Casentino and Volterra, of modern Tuscans; modern populations from Murlo and Florence, by contrast, were shown not to continue the Medieval population. By further considering two Anatolian samples (35 and 123 individuals), it was estimated that the genetic links between Tuscany and Anatolia date back to at least 5,000 years ago, and the "most likely separation time between Tuscany and Western Anatolia falls around 7,600 years ago", strongly suggesting that the Etruscan culture developed locally, and not as an immediate consequence of immigration from the Eastern Mediterranean shores. According to the study, ancient Etruscan mtDNA is closest among modern European populations and is not particularly close to Anatolian or other Eastern Mediterranean populations. Among ancient populations based on mtDNA, ancient Etruscans were found to be closest to LBK Neolithic farmers from Central Europe.[38][39]

This result is largely in line with previous mtDNA results from 2004 (in a smaller study also based on ancient DNA), and contradictory to results from 2007 (based on modern DNA). The 2004 study was based on mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) from 80 bone samples, reduced to 28 bone samples in the analysis phase, taken from tombs dating from the seventh century to the third century BC from Veneto, Tuscany, Lazio and Campania.[40] This study found that the ancient DNA extracted from the Etruscan remains had some affinities with modern European populations including Germans, English people from Cornwall, and Tuscans in Italy. In addition the Etruscan samples possibly revealed more genetic inheritance from the eastern and southern Mediterranean than modern Italian samples contain. The study was marred by concerns that mtDNA sequences from the archeological samples represented severely damaged or contaminated DNA;[41] however, subsequent investigation showed that the samples passed the most stringent tests of DNA degradation available.[42]

2018 edit

A mtDNA study, published in 2018 in the journal American Journal of Physical Anthropology, compared both ancient and modern samples from Tuscany, from the Prehistory, Etruscan age, Roman age, Renaissance, and Present-day, and concluded that the Etruscans appear as a local population, intermediate between the prehistoric and the other samples, placing in the temporal network between the Eneolithic Age and the Roman Age.[43]

2019 edit

  • A 2019 genetic study by Stanford, published in the journal Science, which analyzed the autosomal DNA of 11 Iron Age samples from the areas around Rome, concluded that Etruscans (900-600 BC) and the Latins (900-200 BC) from Latium vetus were genetically similar, and Etruscans also had Steppe-related ancestry despite speaking a pre-Indo-European language.[44] A 2021 genetic study by Max Planck Institute, Universities of Tübingen, Florence, and Harvard, published in the journal Science Advances, analyzed the autosomal DNA of 48 Iron Age individuals from Tuscany and Lazio and confirmed that the Etruscan individuals displayed the ancestral component Steppe in the same percentages as found in the previously analyzed Iron Age Latins, and that the Etruscans' DNA completely lacks a signal of recent admixture with Anatolia or the Eastern Mediterranean, concluding that the Etruscans had a genetic profile similar to their Latin neighbors. Both Etruscans and Latins joined firmly the European cluster, 75% of the Etruscan male individuals were found to belong to haplogroup R1b, especially R1b-P312 and its derivative R1b-L2 whose direct ancestor is R1b-U152, while the most common mitochondrial DNA haplogroup among the Etruscans was H.[20]

A 2019 genetic study published in the journal Science analyzed the remains of eleven Iron Age individuals from the areas around Rome, of which four were Etruscan individuals, one buried in Veio Grotta Gramiccia from the Villanovan period (900-800 BC) and three buried in La Mattonara Necropolis near Civitavecchia from the Orientalizing period (700-600 BC). The study concluded that Etruscans (900–600 BC) and the Latins (900–500 BC) from Latium vetus were genetically similar;[44] genetic differences between the examined Etruscans and Latins were found to be insignificant.[45] The Etruscan individuals and contemporary Latins were distinguished from preceding populations of Italy by the presence of 30.7% steppe ancestry.[46] Their DNA was a mixture of two-thirds Copper Age ancestry (EEF + WHG; Etruscans ~66–72%, Latins ~62–75%) and one-third Steppe-related ancestry (Etruscans ~27–33%, Latins ~24–37%) (with the EEF component mainly deriving from Neolithic-era migrants to Europe from Anatolia and the WHG being local Western European hunter-gatherers, with both components, along with that from the steppe, being found in virtually all European populations).[44] The only sample of Y-DNA extracted belonged to haplogroup J-M12 (J2b-L283), found in an individual dated 700-600 BC, and carried exactly the M314 derived allele also found in a Middle Bronze Age individual from Croatia (1631-1531 calBCE). While the four samples of mtDNA extracted belonged to haplogroups U5a1, H, T2b32, K1a4.[47] Therefore, Etruscans had also Steppe-related ancestry despite speaking a pre-Indo-European language.

2021 edit

A 2021 study by the Max Planck Institute, the Universities of Tübingen, Florence, and Harvard, published in the journal Science Advances, analyzed the Y-chromosome, mitochondrial DNA, and autosomal DNA of 82 ancient samples from Etruria (Tuscany and Latium) and southern Italy (Basilicata) spanning from 800 BC to 1000 AD, including 48 Iron Age individuals. The study confirmed that in the samples of Etruscan individuals from Tuscany and Lazio was present the ancestral component Steppe in the same percentages found in the previously analyzed samples of Iron Age Latins, and added that in the DNA of the Etruscans was completely absent a signal of recent admixture with Anatolia or the Eastern Mediterranean, concluding that the Etruscans had a genetic profile similar to that of their early Iron Age Latin neighbors. Both Etruscans and Latins belonged firmly to the European cluster, 75% of the samples of Etruscan male individuals were found to belong to haplogroup R1b, especially R1b-P312 and its derivative R1b-L2 whose direct ancestor is R1b-U152. While regarding mitochondrial DNA haplogroups, the most prevalent was largely H, followed by J and T. Uniparental marker data and autosomal DNA data from samples of Iron Age Etruscan individuals suggest that Etruria received migrations rich of the ancestral Steppe component during the 2nd millennium BC, related to the spread of Indo-European languages, starting with the Bell Beaker culture, and that these migrations merged with populations of the oldest pre-Indo-European layer present since at least the Neolithic period, but it was the latter's language that survived, a situation similar to what happened in the Basque region of northern Spain. The study has also concluded that the samples analyzed show that the Etruscans kept their genetic profile unchanged for almost 1000 years, despite the sparse presence in Etruria of foreigners, and that a demographic change in Etruria occurred only from the Roman imperial period, in which there is the arrival in and intermixture into the local population of ancestral components from the Eastern Mediterranean Sea. Analysis of samples of individuals who lived in the Roman imperial period and those of the Medieval Age also suggest that the genetic landscape of present-day central Italy was formed largely around 1000 years ago after the Barbarian invasions, and that the arrival of the Germanic Lombards in Italy contributed to the formation of the gene pool of the modern population of Tuscany and northern Latium.[20]

2007 edit

An mtDNA study from 2007, by contrast, earlier suggested a Near Eastern origin.[48] Achilli et al. (2007) found in a modern sample of 86 individuals from Murlo, a small town in southern Tuscany, an unusually high frequency (17.5%) of supposed Near Eastern mtDNA haplogroups, while other Tuscan populations do not show the same striking feature. Based on this result Achilli concluded that "their data support the scenario of a post-Neolithic genetic input from the Near East to the present-day population of Tuscany, a scenario in agreement with the Lydian origin of Etruscans". This research has been much criticized by archeologists, etruscologists and classicists.[49] In the absence of any dating evidence, there is no direct link between this genetic input found in Murlo and the Etruscans. Furthermore, there is no evidence that these mtDNA haplogroups found in Murlo might be proof of an eastern origin of the Etruscans, as some of these mtDNA haplogroups have been found in other studies as early as the Neolithic and Aeneolithic in Italy and Germany.[43] All the mtDNA haplogroups found in the modern sample from Murlo and classified by Achilli et al. as of Near Eastern origin are actually widespread in modern samples from other areas of Italy and Europe with no link with the Etruscans.[50]

2018 edit

A recent Y-DNA study from 2018 on a modern sample of 113 individuals from Volterra, a town of Etruscan origin, Grugni at al. keeps all the possibilities open, and concludes that "the presence of J2a-M67* (2.7%) suggests contacts by sea with Anatolian people, the finding of the Central European lineage G2a-L497 (7.1%) at considerable frequency would rather support a Northern European origin of Etruscans, while the high incidence of European R1b lineages (R1b 49.8%, R1b-U152 24.5%) cannot rule out the scenario of an autochthonous process of formation of the Etruscan civilization from the preceding Villanovan society, as suggested by Dionysius of Halicarnassus".[51] In Italy Y-DNA J2a-M67*, not yet found in Etruscan samples, is more widespread on the Adriatic Sea coast between Marche and Abruzzo, and not in those where once lived the Etruscans, and in the study has its peak in the Ionian side of Calabria.[52][53] In 2014, a late Bronze Age Kyjatice culture sample in Hungary was found to be J2a1-M67,[54] a couple of J2a1b were found in Late Neolithic samples from the LBK culture in Austria,[55] a J2a1a was found in a Middle Neolithic Sopot culture sample from Croatia,[55] a J2a was found in a Late Neolithic Lengyel Culture sample from Hungary.[56] In 2019, in a Stanford study published in Science, two ancient samples from the Neolithic settlement of Ripabianca di Monterado in the province of Ancona, in the Marche region of Italy, were found to be Y-DNA J-L26 and J-M304.[44] In 2021, two more ancient samples from the Chalcolitich settlement of Grotta La Sassa, in the province of Latina in southern Lazio, were found to be Y-DNA J2a7-Z2397.[57] Therefore, Y-DNA J2a-M67 is likely in Italy since the Neolithic and can't be the proof of recent contacts with Anatolia.

Recent edit

Recent studies on the population structure of modern-day Italians have shown that in Italy there is a north–south cline for Y-chromosome lineages and autosomal loci, with a clear differentiation of peninsular Italians from Sardinians, and that modern Tuscans are the population of central Italy closest genetically to the inhabitants of northern Italy.[58] A 2019 study, based on autosomal DNA of 1616 individuals from all 20 Italian administrative regions, concludes that Tuscans join the northern Italian cluster, close to the inhabitants of Liguria and Emilia-Romagna.[59] A 2013 study, based on uniparental markers of 884 unrelated individuals from 23 Italian locations, had shown that the structure observed for the paternal lineages in continental Italy and Sicily suggests a shared genetic background between people from Tuscany and Northern Italy from one side, and people from Southern Italy and the Adriatic coast from the other side. The most frequent Y-DNA haplogroups in the group represented by populations from North-Western Italy, including Tuscany and most of the Padana plain, are four R1b-lineages (R-U152*, R-M269*, R-P312* and R-L2*).[53]

In the collective volume Etruscology published in 2017, British archeologist Phil Perkins provides an analysis of the state of DNA studies and writes that "none of the DNA studies to date conclusively prove that Etruscans were an intrusive population in Italy that originated in the Eastern Mediterranean or Anatolia".[37]

2021 theory edit

In his book A Short History of Humanity published in 2021, German geneticist Johannes Krause, co-director of the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Jena, concludes that it is likely that the Etruscan language (as well as Basque, Paleo-Sardinian and Minoan) "developed on the continent in the course of the Neolithic Revolution".[60]

Notes and references edit

Notes edit

  1. ^ After more than 90 years of archaeological excavations at Lemnos, nothing has been found that would support a migration from Lemnos to Etruria,[12] the indigenous inhabitants of Lemnos, also called in ancient times Sinteis, were the Sintians, a Thracian population.[12] Some scholars believe the Lemnian language might have arrived in the Aegean Sea during the Late Bronze Age, when Mycenaean rulers recruited groups of mercenaries from Sicily, Sardinia and various parts of the Italian peninsula.[13] Other scholars have concluded that the Lemnian inscriptions might be due to an Etruscan commercial settlement on the island that took place before 700 BC, not related to the Sea Peoples.[14][15][16][17][18]
  2. ^ Old High German: Wuotan; from *(W)ōðin(az) / *(W)ōðan(az) / *Wōtan(az)
  3. ^ Also spelt Tinh, Tina, Tinia, Tins; from *(Wō)ðin(as) / *(Wō)tin(as)

References edit

  1. ^ Bartoloni, Gilda, ed. (2012). Introduzione all'Etruscologia (in Italian). Milan: Hoepli. ISBN 978-8820348700.
  2. ^ a b Giovanna Bermond Montanari (2004). "L'Italia preromana. I siti etruschi: Bologna" (in Italian). Treccani. Retrieved October 12, 2019.
  3. ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities, 1.17–19
  4. ^ Titus Livius (Livy), The History of Rome (Ab Urbe Condita), Book 5
  5. ^ Diana Neri (2012). "1.1 Il periodo villanoviano nell'Emilia occidentale". Gli etruschi tra VIII e VII secolo a.C. nel territorio di Castelfranco Emilia (MO) (in Italian). Firenze: All'Insegna del Giglio. p. 9. ISBN 978-8878145337. Il termine "Villanoviano" è entrato nella letteratura archeologica quando, a metà dell '800, il conte Gozzadini mise in luce le prime tombe ad incinerazione nella sua proprietà di Villanova di Castenaso, in località Caselle (BO). La cultura villanoviana coincide con il periodo più antico della civiltà etrusca, in particolare durante i secoli IX e VIII a.C. e i termini di Villanoviano I, II e III, utilizzati dagli archeologi per scandire le fasi evolutive, costituiscono partizioni convenzionali della prima età del Ferro
  6. ^ Gilda Bartoloni (2012) [2002]. La cultura villanoviana. All'inizio della storia etrusca (in Italian) (III ed.). Roma: Carocci editore. ISBN 9788843022618.
  7. ^ Giovanni Colonna (2000). "I caratteri originali della civiltà Etrusca". In Mario Torelli (ed.). Gi Etruschi (in Italian). Milano: Bompiani. pp. 25–41.
  8. ^ Dominique Briquel (2000). "Le origini degli Etruschi: una questione dibattuta fin dall'antichità". In Mario Torelli (ed.). Gi Etruschi (in Italian). Milano: Bompiani. pp. 43–51.
  9. ^ Gilda Bartoloni (2000). "Le origini e la diffusione della cultura villanoviana". In Mario Torelli (ed.). Gi Etruschi (in Italian). Milano: Bompiani. pp. 53–71.
  10. ^ a b Moser, Mary E. (1996). "The origins of the Etruscans: new evidence for an old question". In Hall, John Franklin (ed.). Etruscan Italy: Etruscan Influences on the Civilizations of Italy from Antiquity to the Modern Era. Provo, Utah: Museum of Art, Brigham Young University. pp. 29- 43. ISBN 0842523340.
  11. ^ Rix 1998. Rätisch und Etruskisch (Innsbruck).
  12. ^ a b Ficuciello, Lucia (2013). Lemnos. Cultura, storia, archeologia, topografia di un'isola del nord-Egeo. Monografie della Scuola Archeologica di Atene e delle Missioni Italiane in Oriente 20, 1/1 (in Italian). Athens: Scuola Archeologica Italiana di Atene. pp. 68–116. ISBN 978-960-9559-03-4.
  13. ^ De Ligt, Luuk. "An Eteocretan Inscription from Praisos and the Homeland of the Sea peoples" (PDF). talanta.nl. ALANTA XL-XLI (2008–2009), 151–172.
  14. ^ De Simone, Carlo (1996). I Tirreni a Lemnos, Evidenza linguistica e tradizioni storiche. Istituto Nazionale di Studi Etruschi. Biblioteca di «Studi Etruschi» (in Italian). Vol. 31. Florence: Casa Editrice Leo S. Olschki. ISBN 978-88-222-4432-1.
  15. ^ De Simone, Carlo (2011). "La nuova Iscrizione 'Tirsenica' di Lemnos (Efestia, teatro): considerazioni generali". Rasenna: Journal of the Center for Etruscan Studies (in Italian). Vol. 3. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Amherst. pp. 1–34.
  16. ^ Gras, Michel (1976). "La piraterie tyrrhénienne en mer Egée: mythe ou réalité?". L'Italie préromaine et la Rome républicaine. Mélanges offerts à J. Heurgon (in French). Rome: École Française de Rome. pp. 341–370. ISBN 2-7283-0438-6.
  17. ^ Gras, Michel (2003). "Autour de Lemnos". In Marchesini, Simona; Poccetti, Paolo (eds.). Linguistica è storia: studi in onore di Carlo De Simone (in French). Pisa-Rome: Fabrizio Serra editore. pp. 135–144.
  18. ^ Drews, Robert (1992). "Herodotus 1.94, the Drought Ca. 1200 B.C., and the Origin of the Etruscans". Historia: Zeitschrift Für Alte Geschichte. Vol. 41. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag. pp. 14–39.
  19. ^ Bagnasco Gianni, Giovanna. "Origine degli Etruschi". In Bartoloni, Gilda (ed.). Introduzione all'Etruscologia (in Italian). Milan: Ulrico Hoepli Editore. pp. 47–81.
  20. ^ a b c Posth, Cosimo; Zaro, Valentina; Spyrou, Maria A. (September 24, 2021). "The origin and legacy of the Etruscans through a 2000-year archeogenomic time transect". Science Advances. 7 (39). Washington DC: American Association for the Advancement of Science: eabi7673. Bibcode:2021SciA....7.7673P. doi:10.1126/sciadv.abi7673. PMC 8462907. PMID 34559560.
  21. ^ Claassen, Horst; Wree, Andreas (2004). "The Etruscan skulls of the Rostock anatomical collection — How do they compare with the skeletal findings of the first thousand years B.C.?". Annals of Anatomy. 186 (2). Amsterdam: Elsevier (published April 2004): 157–163. doi:10.1016/S0940-9602(04)80032-3. PMID 15125046. Seven Etruscan skulls were found in Corneto Tarquinia in the years 1881 and 1882 and were given as present to Rostock's anatomical collection in 1882. The origin of the Etruscans who were contemporary with the Celts is not yet clear; according to Herodotus they had emigrated from Lydia in Asia Minor to Italy. To fit the Etruscan skulls into an ethnological grid they were compared with skeletal remains of the first thousand years B.C.E. All skulls were found to be male; their age ranged from 20 to 60 years, with an average age of about thirty. A comparison of the median sagittal outlines of the Etruscan skulls and the contemporary Hallstatt-Celtic skulls from North Bavaria showed that the former were shorter and lower. Maximum skull length, minimum frontal breadth, ear bregma height, bizygomatical breadth and orbital breadth of the Etruscan skulls were statistically significantly less developed compared to Hallstatt-Celtics from North Bavaria. In comparison to other contemporary skeletal remains the Etruscan skulls had no similarities in common with Hallstatt-Celtic skulls from North Bavaria and Baden-Württemberg but rather with Hallstatt-Celtic skulls from Hallstatt in Austria. Compared to chronologically adjacent skeletal remains the Etruscan skulls did not show similarities with Early Bronze Age skulls from Moravia but with Latène-Celtic skulls from Manching in South Bavaria. Due to the similarities of the Etruscan skulls with some Celtic skulls from South Bavaria and Austria, it seems more likely that the Etruscans were original inhabitants of Etruria than immigrants
  22. ^ Hedlund, Stieg (2019-07-15), "Coda Etrusca. A forgotten culture's lasting influence", Deru Kugi, The continuity of magic from East to West, Part 3A – via medium.com
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  25. ^ Wallace, Rex E. (2010). "Italy, Languages of". In Gagarin, Michael (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 97–102. doi:10.1093/acref/9780195170726.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-517072-6. Etruscan origins lie in the distant past. Despite the claim by Herodotus, who wrote that Etruscans migrated to Italy from Lydia in the eastern Mediterranean, there is no material or linguistic evidence to support this. Etruscan material culture developed in an unbroken chain from Bronze Age antecedents. As for linguistic relationships, Lydian is an Indo-European language. Lemnian, which is attested by a few inscriptions discovered near Kamania on the island of Lemnos, was a dialect of Etruscan introduced to the island by commercial adventurers. Linguistic similarities connecting Etruscan with Raetic, a language spoken in the sub-Alpine regions of northeastern Italy, further militate against the idea of eastern origins.
  26. ^ Stifter 2010, p. 374.
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  32. ^ Wallace, Rex (2008). Zikh Rasna: A Manual of the Etruscan Language and Inscriptions. Ann Arbor, MI: Beech Stave Press. pp. xvii, 20. ISBN 978-0-9747927-4-3.
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  42. ^ Mateiu LM, Rannala BH (2008). "Bayesian inference of errors in ancient DNA caused by postmortem degradation". Mol Biol Evol. 25 (7): 1503–11. doi:10.1093/molbev/msn095. PMID 18420593.
  43. ^ a b Leonardi, Michela; Sandionigi, Anna; Conzato, Annalisa; Vai, Stefania; Lari, Martina (2018). "The female ancestor's tale: Long‐term matrilineal continuity in a nonisolated region of Tuscany". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 167 (3). New York City: John Wiley & Sons (published September 6, 2018): 497–506. doi:10.1002/ajpa.23679. PMID 30187463. S2CID 52161000.
  44. ^ a b c d Antonio, Margaret L.; Gao, Ziyue; Moots, Hannah M.; et al. (November 2019). "Ancient Rome: A genetic crossroads of Europe and the Mediterranean". Science. 366 (6466). Washington D.C.: American Association for the Advancement of Science (published November 8, 2019): 708–714. Bibcode:2019Sci...366..708A. doi:10.1126/science.aay6826. hdl:2318/1715466. PMC 7093155. PMID 31699931. Interestingly, although Iron Age individuals were sampled from both Etruscan (n=3) and Latin (n=6) contexts, we did not detect any significant differences between the two groups with f4 statistics in the form of f4(RMPR_Etruscan, RMPR_Latin; test population, Onge), suggesting shared origins or extensive genetic exchange between them.
  45. ^ Antonio et al. 2019, p. 3.
  46. ^ Antonio et al. 2019, p. 2.
  47. ^ Antonio et al. 2019, Table 2 Sample Information, Rows 33-35.
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  49. ^ Whitehead, Jane K. (2007). "DNA and Ethnic Origins: The Possible and the Improbable". Etruscan News (8). New York City: American section of the Institute for Etruscan and Italic Studies.
  50. ^ Gandini, Francesca (2016). "Mapping human dispersals into the Horn of Africa from Arabian Ice Age refugia using mitogenomes". Scientific Reports. 6 (25472): 25472. Bibcode:2016NatSR...625472G. doi:10.1038/srep25472. PMC 4857117. PMID 27146119.
  51. ^ Grugni, Viola (2018). "Reconstructing the genetic history of Italians: new insights from a male (Y-chromosome) perspective". Annals of Human Biology. 45 (1) (published 30 January 2018): 44–56. doi:10.1080/03014460.2017.1409801. PMID 29382284. S2CID 43501209. As a matter of fact, while the presence of J2a-M67* suggests contacts by sea with Anatolian people, in agreement with the Herodotus hypothesis of an external Anatolian source of Etruscans, the finding of the Central European lineage G2a-L497 at considerable frequency would rather support a Northern European origin of Etruscans. On the other hand, the high incidence of European R1b lineages cannot rule out the scenario of an autochthonous process of formation of the Etruscan civilization from the preceding Villanovan society, as first suggested by Dionysius of Halicarnassus; a detailed analysis of haplogroup R1b-U152 could prove very informative in this regard.
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  54. ^ Gamba, Cristina; Jones, Eppie R.; Teasdale, Matthew D. (2014). "Genome flux and stasis in a five millennium transect of European prehistory". Nature Communications. 5 (5257). London: Nature Publishing Group (published October 21, 2014): 5257. Bibcode:2014NatCo...5.5257G. doi:10.1038/ncomms6257. PMC 4218962. PMID 25334030.
  55. ^ a b Mathieson, Iain (2018). "The genomic history of southeastern Europe". Nature. 555 (7695). London: Nature Publishing Group (published February 21, 2018): 197–203. Bibcode:2018Natur.555..197M. doi:10.1038/nature25778. PMC 6091220. PMID 29466330.
  56. ^ Lipson, Mark (2017). "Parallel palaeogenomic transects reveal complex genetic history of early European farmers". Nature. 551 (7680). London: Nature Publishing Group (published November 8, 2017): 368–372. Bibcode:2017Natur.551..368L. doi:10.1038/nature24476. PMC 5973800. PMID 29144465.
  57. ^ Saupe, Tina; Montinaro, Francesco; Scaggion, Cinzia; Carrara, Nicola; Kivisild, Toomas; D’Atanasio, Eugenia; Hui, Ruoyun; Solnik, Anu; Lebrasseur, Ophélie; Larson, Greger; Alessandri, Luca (2021-06-21). "Ancient genomes reveal structural shifts after the arrival of Steppe-related ancestry in the Italian Peninsula". Current Biology. 31 (12): 2576–2591.e12. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2021.04.022. ISSN 0960-9822. PMID 33974848. S2CID 234471370. The Grotta La Sassa (National Cave Cadastre id: LA 2001) was discovered in 2015 during a survey of the Ausoni Mountains natural caves carried out by two speleological groups: Gruppo Grotte Castelli Romani and Speleo Club Roma. (...) At La Sassa, the two males LSC002/004 and LSC011 have an identical Ychr haplotype (J2a-M410/J2a7-Z2397; Table 1; Data S1B and S1F)
  58. ^ Sazzini, M.; Gnecchi Ruscone, G.; Giuliani, C. (2016). "Complex interplay between neutral and adaptive evolution shaped differential genomic background and disease susceptibility along the Italian peninsula". Scientific Reports. 6 (32513): 32513. Bibcode:2016NatSR...632513S. doi:10.1038/srep32513. PMC 5007512. PMID 27582244.
  59. ^ Raveane, Marco (2019). "Population structure of modern-day Italians reveals patterns of ancient and archaic ancestries in Southern Europe". Science Advances. 5 (9): eaaw3492. Bibcode:2019SciA....5.3492R. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aaw3492. PMC 6726452. PMID 31517044.
  60. ^ Krause, Johannes; Trappe, Thomas (2021) [2019]. A Short History of Humanity: A New History of Old Europe [Die Reise unserer Gene: Eine Geschichte über uns und unsere Vorfahren]. Translated by Waight, Caroline (I ed.). New York: Random House. p. 217. ISBN 9780593229422. It's likely that Basque, Paleo-Sardinian, Minoan, and Etruscan developed on the continent in the course of the Neolithic Revolution. Sadly, the true diversity of the languages that once existed in Europe will never be known.
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