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Libertarian socialism

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(Redirected from Libertarian Marxism)
"Socialist anarchism" redirects here. For the branch of anarchism emphasizing mutual aid and sometimes referred to in similar terms, see Social anarchism.
This article is about the anti-authoritarian, anti-statist, anti-elitist and libertarian political philosophy within the socialist movement. For the type of libertarianism stressing both individual freedom and social equality, see Left-libertarianism. For the political philosophy that incorporates liberal principles to socialism, see Liberal socialism. For the variety of liberalism that endorses a regulated market economy and the expansion of civil and political rights, see Social liberalism.

Libertarian socialism, also known by various other names, is a left-wing,[1] anti-authoritarian, anti-statist and libertarian[2] political philosophy within the socialist movement which rejects the state's control of the economy under state socialism.[3] Overlapping with anarchism and libertarianism,[4][5] libertarian socialists criticize wage slavery relationships within the workplace,[6] emphasizing workers' self-management[7] and decentralized structures of political organization.[8][9][10] As a broad socialist tradition and movement, libertarian socialism includes anarchist, Marxist, and anarchist- or Marxist-inspired thought and other left-libertarian tendencies.[11]

Libertarian socialism rejects the concept of a state.[7] It asserts that a society based on freedom and justice can only be achieved with the abolition of authoritarian institutions that control specific means of production and subordinate the majority to an owning class or political and economic elite.[12] Libertarian socialists advocate for decentralized structures based on direct democracy and federal or confederal associations[13] such as citizens'/popular assemblies, cooperatives, libertarian municipalism, trade unions and workers' councils.[14][15] This is done within a general call for liberty[16] and free association[17] through the identification, criticism and practical dismantling of illegitimate authority in all aspects of human life.[18] Libertarian socialism is distinguished from the authoritarian approach of Bolshevism and the reformism of Fabianism.[19]

Past and present currents and movements commonly described as libertarian socialist include anarchism, as well as communalism, some forms of democratic socialism, guild socialism,[20] Marxism[21] (autonomism, council communism,[22] left communism among others), participism and revolutionary syndicalism.

OverviewEdit

NameEdit

Libertarian socialism is also referred to as socialist libertarianism[23] and often used interchangeably with the terms anarcho-socialism,[24][25] anarchist socialism,[26] free socialism,[27] stateless socialism,[28] and socialist anarchism.[29]

DefinitionEdit

See also: Definition of anarchism and libertarianism

Libertarian socialists advocate the preservation of individual liberty, through the creation of a decentralized system of self-governance and the abolition of private property relations.[30] According to Peter Hain, the core tenets of libertarian socialism are decentralization, democracy, popular sovereignty and individual liberty.[31] Libertarian socialism, such as that advocated by Cornelius Castoriadis, generally upholds autonomy and direct democracy.[32]

In the context of the European socialist movement, the term libertarian has been conventionally used to describe socialists who opposed authoritarianism and state socialism, such as Mikhail Bakunin.[33][34] The association of socialism with libertarianism predates that of capitalism, and many anti-authoritarians still decry what they see as a mistaken association of capitalism with libertarianism in the United States.[35] As Noam Chomsky put it, a consistent libertarian "must oppose private ownership of the means of production and wage slavery, which is a component of this system, as incompatible with the principle that labor must be freely undertaken and under the control of the producer".[36]

Libertarian socialists seek the abolition of the state without going through a state capitalist transitionary stage.[37]

Anti-capitalismEdit

Main article: Anti-capitalism

According to John O'Neil, "[i]t is forgotten that the early defenders of commercial society like [Adam] Smith were as much concerned with criticising the associational blocks to mobile labour represented by guilds as they were to the activities of the state. The history of socialist thought includes a long associational and anti-statist tradition prior to the political victory of the Bolshevism in the east and varieties of Fabianism in the west".[38]

Libertarian socialism upholds individual self-ownership, as well as the collective ownership of the means of production.[39]

Anti-authoritarianism and opposition to the stateEdit

Main articles: Anti-authoritarianism and Anti-statism

Libertarian philosophy generally regards concentrations of power as sources of oppression that must be continually challenged and justified. Most libertarian socialists believe that when power is exercised as exemplified by the economic, social, or physical dominance of one individual over another, the burden of proof is always on the authoritarian to justify their action as legitimate when taken against its effect of narrowing the scope of human freedom.[40] Libertarian socialists oppose rigid and stratified authority structures, whether political, economic, or social.[41]

Political rootsEdit

Within early modern socialist thoughtEdit

For Roderick T. Long, libertarian socialists claim the 17th century English Levellers and the 18th-century French Encyclopédistes among their ideological forebears.[42]

Within modern socialist thoughtEdit

In a chapter of his Economic Justice and Democracy (2005) recounting the history of libertarian socialism, economist Robin Hahnel relates that the period where libertarian socialism had its most significant impact was at the end of the 19th century through the first four decades of the 20th century. According to Hahnel, "libertarian socialism was as powerful a force as social democracy and communism" in the early 20th century. The Anarchist St. Imier International, referred by Hahnel as the Libertarian International, was founded at the 1872 Congress of St. Imier a few days after the split between Marxists and libertarians at The Hague Congress of the First International, referred to by Hahnel as the Socialist International. This Libertarian International "competed successfully against social democrats and communists alike for the loyalty of anticapitalist activists, revolutionaries, workers, unions and political parties for over fifty years". For Hahnel, libertarian socialists "played a major role in the Russian revolutions of 1905 and 1917. Libertarian socialists played a dominant role in the Mexican Revolution of 1911. Twenty years after World War I was over, libertarian socialists were still strong enough to spearhead the social revolution that swept across Republican Spain in 1936 and 1937".[43]

AnarchismEdit

Main article: Anarchism

Libertarian socialism has its roots in both classical liberalism and socialism, though it is often in conflict with liberalism (especially neoliberalism and right-libertarianism) and authoritarian state socialism simultaneously. While libertarian socialism has roots in socialism and liberalism, different forms have different levels of influence from the two traditions. For instance, mutualist anarchism is more influenced by liberalism, while communist and syndicalist anarchism are more influenced by socialism. However, mutualist anarchism originates in 18th- and 19th-century European socialism (such as Fourierian socialism),[44][45] while communist and syndicalist anarchism have their earliest origins in early 18th-century liberalism (such as the French Revolution).[46]

Anarchism posed an early challenge to the vanguardism and statism it detected in important sectors of the socialist movement. As such: "The consequences of the growth of parliamentary action, ministerialism, and party life, charged the anarchists, would be de-radicalism and embourgeoisiement. Further, state politics would subvert both true individuality and true community. In response, many anarchists refused Marxist-type organisation, seeking to dissolve or undermine power and hierarchy by loose political-cultural groupings or by championing organisation by a single, simultaneously economic and political administrative unit (Ruhle, syndicalism). The power of the intellectual and of science were also rejected by many anarchists: "In conquering the state, in exalting the role of parties, they [intellectuals] reinforce the hierarchical principle embodied in political and administrative institutions". Revolutions could only come through force of circumstances and/or the inherently rebellious instincts of the masses (the "instinct for freedom") (Bakunin, Chomsky), or in Bakunin's words: "All that individuals can do is to clarify, propagate, and work out ideas corresponding to the popular instinct".[47]

MarxismEdit

See also: Anarchism and Marxism
 
William Morris, early English libertarian Marxist

Marxism started to develop a libertarian strand of thought after specific circumstances. Chamsy Ojeili said: "One does find early expressions of such perspectives in [William] Morris and the Socialist Party of Great Britain (the SPGB), then again around the events of 1905, with the growing concern at the bureaucratisation and de-radicalisation of international socialism".[48]

 
Clara Zetkin and Rosa Luxemburg

However, "the most important ruptures are to be traced to the insurgency during and after the First World War. Disillusioned with the capitulation of the social democrats, excited by the emergence of workers' councils, and slowly distanced from Leninism, many communists came to reject the claims of socialist parties and to put their faith instead in the masses". For these socialists, "[t]he intuition of the masses in action can have more genius in it than the work of the greatest individual genius". Rosa Luxemburg's workerism and spontaneism are exemplary of positions later taken up by the far-left of the period—Antonie Pannekoek, Roland Holst and Herman Gorter in the Netherlands, Sylvia Pankhurst in Britain, Antonio Gramsci in Italy and György Lukács in Hungary. In these formulations, the dictatorship of the proletariat was to be the dictatorship of a class, "not of a party or of a clique".[48] However, within this line of thought, "[t]he tension between anti-vanguardism and vanguardism has frequently resolved itself in two diametrically opposed ways: the first involved a drift towards the party; the second saw a move towards the idea of complete proletarian spontaneity. [...] The first course is exemplified most clearly in Gramsci and Lukacs. [...] The second course is illustrated in the tendency, developing from the Dutch and German far-lefts, which inclined towards the complete eradication of the party form".[49]

For many Marxian libertarian socialists, "the political bankruptcy of socialist orthodoxy necessitated a theoretical break. This break took a number of forms. The Bordigists and the SPGB championed a super-Marxian intransigence in theoretical matters. Other socialists made a return "behind Marx" to the anti-positivist programme of German idealism. Libertarian socialism has frequently linked its anti-authoritarian political aspirations with this theoretical differentiation from orthodoxy. [...] Karl Korsch [...] remained a libertarian socialist for a large part of his life and because of the persistent urge towards theoretical openness in his work. Korsch rejected the eternal and static, and he was obsessed by the essential role of practice in a theory's truth. For Korsch, no theory could escape history, not even Marxism. In this vein, Korsch even credited the stimulus for Marx's Capital to the movement of the oppressed classes".[50]

Several libertarian socialists, notably Noam Chomsky, believe that anarchism shares much in common with specific variants of Marxism, such as the council communism of Marxist Anton Pannekoek. In his Notes on Anarchism, Chomsky suggests the possibility "that some form of council communism is the natural form of revolutionary socialism in an industrial society. It reflects the belief that democracy is severely limited when the industrial system is controlled by any form of autocratic elite, whether of owners, managers, and technocrats, a 'vanguard' party, or a State bureaucracy".[36]

In the United Kingdom, the group Solidarity was founded in 1960 by a small group of expelled members of the Trotskyist Socialist Labour League. Almost from the start, it was strongly influenced by the French Socialisme ou Barbarie group, in particular by its intellectual leader Cornelius Castoriadis, whose essays were among the many pamphlets Solidarity produced. The group's intellectual leader was Chris Pallis, who wrote under the name Maurice Brinton.[51]

Autonomist Marxism, neo-Marxism and Situationist theory are also regarded as anti-authoritarian variants of Marxism that are firmly within the libertarian socialist tradition. As such, "[i]n New Zealand, no situationist group was formed, despite the attempts of Grant McDonagh. Instead, McDonagh operated as an individual on the periphery of the anarchist milieu, co-operating with anarchists to publish several magazines, such as Anarchy and KAT. The latter called itself 'an anti-authoritarian spasmodical' of the 'libertarian ultra-left (situationists, anarchists and libertarian socialists)'".[52]

Notable tendenciesEdit

AnarchistEdit

Main article: Anarchism

Historically, anarchism and libertarian socialism have mainly been synonymous.[53] Principally this regards the currents of classical anarchism, developed in the 19th century, in their commitments to autonomy and freedom, decentralization, opposing hierarchy, and opposing the vanguardism of authoritarian socialism.

Anarcho-syndicalist Gaston Leval explained: "We therefore foresee a Society in which all activities will be coordinated, a structure that has, at the same time, sufficient flexibility to permit the greatest possible autonomy for social life, or for the life of each enterprise, and enough cohesiveness to prevent all disorder. [...] In a well-organised society, all of these things must be systematically accomplished by means of parallel federations, vertically united at the highest levels, constituting one vast organism in which all economic functions will be performed in solidarity with all others and that will permanently preserve the necessary cohesion".[54]

MarxistEdit

A broad scope of economic and political philosophies that draw on the anti-authoritarian aspects of Marxism have been described as "Libertarian Marxism",[55] a tendency which emphasises autonomy, federalism and direct democracy.[56] Wayne Price identified it most closely with the tendency of autonomist Marxism and identified libertarian characteristics within council communism, the Johnson–Forest Tendency, the Socialisme ou Barbarie group and the Situationist International, contrasting them with tendencies of Orthodox Marxism such as social democracy and Marxism-Leninism.[57] Michael Löwy and Olivier Besancenot have identified Rosa Luxemburg, Walter Benjamin, André Breton and Daniel Guérin as prominent figures of libertarian Marxism.[58]

OtherEdit

Other libertarian socialist currents include post-classical anarchist tendencies and tendencies that cannot be easily classified within the anarchist/Marxist division.

Democratic socialismEdit

Main article: Democratic socialism

Labour Party minister Peter Hain has written in support of libertarian socialism,[31] identifying an axis involving a "bottom-up vision of socialism, with anarchists at the revolutionary end and democratic socialists [such as himself] at its reformist end" as opposed to the axis of state socialism with Marxist–Leninists at the revolutionary end and social democrats at the reformist end.[59] Another recent mainstream Labour politician who has been described as a libertarian socialist is Robin Cook.[60] In the United States, there is a Libertarian Socialist Caucus within the Democratic Socialists of America.[61]

Within the New LeftEdit

Main article: New Left
 
Herbert Marcuse, associated with the Frankfurt School of critical theory, was an influential libertarian socialist philosopher of the New Left[62]

The emergence of the New Left in the 1960s led to a revival of interest in libertarian socialism.[63] The New Left's critique of the Old Left's authoritarianism was associated with a strong interest in personal liberty and autonomy, which led to a rediscovery of older socialist traditions, such as left communism, council communism, and the Industrial Workers of the World.[citation needed]

Market anarchismEdit

Main article: Free-market anarchism

Market anarchism is a left-libertarian and individualist anarchist[64] form of libertarian socialism[65][66] that stresses the value of radically free markets, termed freed markets to distinguish them from the common conception which these libertarians believe to be riddled with statist and capitalist privileges.[67]

See alsoEdit

  • Freiwirtschaft ("free economy"), idea based on the "natural economic order"
  • Mao-Spontex, Western Europe political movement of the 1960s–70s combining Maoism and spontaneism
  • Sociocracy, governance system using consent, rather than majority voting
  • Libertarianism, a political philosophy that upholds liberty as a core principle

ReferencesEdit

  1. ^ Diemer, Ulli (1977). "What Is Libertarian Socialism?". The Red Menace. Vol. 2, no. 1. Toronto: Libertarian Socialist Collective. ISSN 0711-2270. OCLC 1080364729. Retrieved 4 August 2019.
  2. ^ McKay, Iain, ed. (2012) [2008]. "What Is Anarchism? Isn't libertarian socialism an oxymoron?". An Anarchist FAQ. Vol. II. Stirling: AK Press. ISBN 978-1-84935-122-5. It implies a classless and anti-authoritarian (i.e. libertarian) society in which people manage their own affairs.
  3. ^ Long, Roderick T. (1998). "Toward a Libertarian Theory of Class" (PDF). Social Philosophy and Policy. 15 (2): 303–349. doi:10.1017/S0265052500002028. S2CID 145150666. p. 305: "Yet, unlike other socialists, they tend (to various different degrees, depending on the thinker) to be skeptical of centralized state intervention as the solution to capitalist exploitation [...]."
  4. ^ Bookchin, Murray; Biehl, Janet (1997). The Murray Bookchin Reader. Cassell. p. 170. ISBN 0-304-33873-7.
  5. ^ Hicks, Steven V.; Shannon, Daniel E. (2003). The American Journal of Economics and Sociology. Blackwell Publisher. p. 612.
  6. ^ "I1. Isn't libertarian socialism an oxymoron?" Archived 9 October 2019 at the Wayback Machine. In An Anarchist FAQ. "Therefore, rather than being an oxymoron, "libertarian socialism" indicates that true socialism must be libertarian and that a libertarian who is not a socialist is a phoney. As true socialists oppose wage labour, they must also oppose the state for the same reasons. Similarly, libertarians must oppose wage labour for the same reasons they must oppose the state."
  7. ^ a b "I1. Isn't libertarian socialism an oxymoron?" Archived 16 November 2017 at the Wayback Machine. In An Anarchist FAQ. "So, libertarian socialism rejects the idea of state ownership and control of the economy, along with the state as such. Through workers' self-management it proposes to bring an end to authority, exploitation, and hierarchy in production."
  8. ^ Prichard, Alex; Kinna, Ruth; Pinta, Saku; Berry, Dave, eds. (December 2012). Libertarian Socialism: Politics in Black and Red. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 13. Their analysis treats libertarian socialism as a form of anti-parliamentary, democratic, antibureaucratic grass roots socialist organisation, strongly linked to working class activism.
  9. ^ Long, Roderick T. (1998). "Toward a Libertarian Theory of Class" (PDF). Social Philosophy and Policy. 15 (2): 303–349. doi:10.1017/S0265052500002028. S2CID 145150666. p. 305: "[...] preferring a system of popular self-governance via networks of decentralized, local, voluntary, participatory, cooperative associations [...]"
  10. ^ Masquelier, Charles (2014). Critical Theory and Libertarian Socialism: Realizing the Political Potential of Critical Social Theory. New York and London: Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 189. What is of particular interest here, however, is the appeal to a form of emancipation grounded in decentralized, cooperative and democratic forms of political and economic governance which most libertarian socialist visions, including Cole's, tend to share.
  11. ^ Marshall, Peter (2009) [1991]. Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism (POLS ed.). Oakland, California: PM Press. p. 641. ISBN 978-1604860641.
  12. ^ Mendes, Silva (1896). Socialismo Libertário ou Anarchismo. 1. "Society should be free through mankind's spontaneous federative affiliation to life, based on the community of land and tools of the trade; meaning: Anarchy will be equality by abolition of private property (while retaining respect for personal property) and liberty by abolition of authority."
  13. ^ Leval, Gaston (1959). Libertarian socialism: a practical outline. We therefore foresee a Society in which all activities will be coordinated, a structure that has, at the same time, sufficient flexibility to permit the greatest possible autonomy for social life, or for the life of each enterprise, and enough cohesiveness to prevent all disorder. [...] In a well-organized society, all of these things must be systematically accomplished by means of parallel federations, vertically united at the highest levels, constituting one vast organism in which all economic functions will be performed in solidarity with all others and that will permanently preserve the necessary cohesion.
  14. ^ Hart, David M.; Chartier, Gary; Kenyon, Ross Miller; Long, Roderick T., eds. (2017). Social Class and State Power: Exploring an Alternative Radical Tradition. Palgrave. p. 300. [...] preferring a system of popular self governance via networks of decentralized, local, voluntary, participatory, cooperative associations-sometimes as a complement to and check on state power [...].
  15. ^ Rocker, Rudolf (2004). Anarcho-Syndicalism: Theory and Practice. AK Press. p. 65. ISBN 978-1-902593-92-0.
  16. ^ Long, Roderick T. (1998). "Toward a Libertarian Theory of Class" (PDF). Social Philosophy and Policy. 15 (2): 303–349. doi:10.1017/S0265052500002028. S2CID 145150666. p. 305: "LibSoc share with LibCap an aversion to any interference to freedom of thought, expression or choicce of lifestyle."
  17. ^ Diemer, Ulli (1977). "What Is Libertarian Socialism?". The Red Menace. Vol. 2, no. 1. Toronto: Libertarian Socialist Collective. ISSN 0711-2270. OCLC 1080364729. Retrieved 4 August 2019. What is implied by the term 'libertarian socialism'?: The idea that socialism is first and foremost about freedom and therefore about overcoming the domination, repression, and alienation that block the free flow of human creativity, thought, and action. [...] An approach to socialism that incorporates cultural revolution, women's and children's liberation, and the critique and transformation of daily life, as well as the more traditional concerns of socialist politics. A politics that is completely revolutionary because it seeks to transform all of reality. We do not think that capturing the economy and the state lead automatically to the transformation of the rest of social being, nor do we equate liberation with changing our life-styles and our heads. Capitalism is a total system that invades all areas of life: socialism must be the overcoming of capitalist reality in its entirety, or it is nothing.
  18. ^ Chomsky, Noam (1986). "The Soviet Union Versus Socialism". Chomsky.info. Retrieved 22 November 2015. Libertarian socialism, furthermore, does not limit its aims to democratic control by producers over production, but seeks to abolish all forms of domination and hierarchy in every aspect of social and personal life, an unending struggle, since progress in achieving a more just society will lead to new insight and understanding of forms of oppression that may be concealed in traditional practice and consciousness.
  19. ^ O'Neil, John (1998). The Market: Ethics, Knowledge and Politics. Routledge. p. 3. "It is forgotten that the early defenders of commercial society like [Adam] Smith were as much concerned with criticising the associational blocks to mobile labour represented by guilds as they were to the activities of the state. The history of socialist thought includes a long associational and anti-statist tradition prior to the political victory of the Bolshevism in the east and varieties of Fabianism in the west."
  20. ^ Masquelier, Charles (2014). Critical Theory and Libertarian Socialism: Realizing the Political Potential of Critical Social Theory. New York and London: Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 190. "It is by meeting such a twofold requirement that the libertarian socialism of G.D.H. Cole could be said to offer timely and sustainable avenues for the institutionalization of the liberal value of autonomy [...]."
  21. ^ Prichard, Alex; Kinna, Ruth; Pinta, Saku; Berry, Dave, eds. (December 2012). Libertarian Socialism: Politics in Black and Red. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 13. "Locating libertarian socialism in a grey area between anarchist and Marxist extremes, they argue that the multiple experiences of historical convergence remain inspirational and that, through these examples, the hope of socialist transformation survives."
  22. ^ Boraman, Toby (December 2012). "Carnival and Class: Anarchism and Councilism in Australasia during the 1970s". In Prichard, Alex; Kinna, Ruth; Pinta, Saku; Berry, Dave, eds. Libertarian Socialism: Politics in Black and Red. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 268. "Councilism and anarchism loosely merged into 'libertarian socialism', offering a non-dogmatic path by which both council communism and anarchism could be updated for the changed conditions of the time, and for the new forms of proletarian resistance to these new conditions."
  23. ^ Carlson, Jennifer D. (2012). "Libertarianism". In Miller, Wilburn R. (ed.). The Social History of Crime and Punishment in America. London: Sage Publications. p. 1006. ISBN 978-1412988766. There exist three major camps in libertarian thought: right-libertarianism, socialist libertarianism, and left-libertarianism; the extent to which these represent distinct ideologies as opposed to variations on a theme is contested by scholars. [...] [S]ocialist libertarians view any concentration of power into the hands of a few (whether politically or economically) as antithetical to freedom and thus advocate for the simultaneous abolition of both government and capitalism.
  24. ^ Poland, Jefferson; Sloan, Sam, ed. (1968). Sex Marchers. p. 57.
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  26. ^ Davidson, John Morrison (1896). Anarchist Socialism vs. State Socialism at the London International Labour Congress (1896). W. Reeves.
  27. ^ Bose, Atindranath (1967). A History of Anarchism. Calcutta: World Press.
  28. ^ Bakunin, Mikhail. Stateless Socialism: Anarchism. In Maximoff, G. P. (1953). The Political Philosophy of Bakunin. New York: The Free Press.
  29. ^ Gale, Cengage Learning (2015). A Study Guide for Political Theories for Students: Anarchism. "Socialist Anarchism". Farmigton Hill, Minnesota: Gale.
  30. ^ Long, Roderick T. (1998). "Toward a Libertarian Theory of Class" (PDF). Social Philosophy and Policy. 15 (2): 303–349. doi:10.1017/S0265052500002028. S2CID 145150666.
  31. ^ a b Hain, Peter (July 2000). "Rediscovering our Libertarian Roots". Chartist. Archived from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 29 December 2022.
  32. ^ Marchart, Oliver (2006). "Castoriadis, Cornelius (1922–1997)". In Harrington, Austin; Marshall, Barbara L.; Muller, Hans-Peter (eds.). Encyclopedia of Social Theory. Vol. 1. Routledge. p. 50. ISBN 0-415-29046-5.
  33. ^ Chomsky, Noam (2004). Language and Politics. In Otero, Carlos Peregrín. AK Press. p. 739.
  34. ^ Perlin, Terry M. (1979). Contemporary Anarchism. Transaction Publishers. p. 40. ISBN 978-0-87855-097-5.
  35. ^ Bookchin, Murray, The Modern Crisis, Black Rose Books (1987), pp. 154–55 ISBN 0-920057-61-6.
  36. ^ a b Chomsky, Noam (1970). "Notes on Anarchism". In Guérin, Daniel (ed.). Anarchism: From Theory to Practice. New York: Monthly Review Press. ISBN 0-85345-128-1. Archived from the original on 28 August 2014. Retrieved 22 May 2014.
  37. ^ Kinna, Ruth (2012). "Introduction". In Kinna, Rith; Pinta, Saku; Prichard, Alex (eds.). Libertarian Socialism: Politics in Black and Red. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 1–16. ISBN 978-0-230-28037-3.
  38. ^ O'Neil, John (1998). The Market: Ethics, Knowledge and Politics. Routledge. p. 3.
  39. ^ Vrousalis 2011, p. 211.
  40. ^ Chomsky (2004) p. 775
  41. ^ Ed, Andrew. 'Closing the Iron Cage: The Scientific Management of Work and Leisure' Black Rose Books (1999) p. 116
  42. ^ Long, Roderick T. (1998). "Toward a Libertarian Theory of Class" (PDF). Social Philosophy and Policy. 15 (2): 303–349. doi:10.1017/S0265052500002028. S2CID 145150666. p. 310: "LibSocs and LibCaps can both claim the seventeenth-century English Levellers and the eighteenth-century French Encyclopedists among their ideological forebears [...]."
  43. ^ Hahnel 2005, p. 138.
  44. ^ Swartz, Clarence Lee. What is Mutualism?.
  45. ^ "Ricardian socialism". The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought. 1987. p. 441
  46. ^ Graham, Robert. Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas – Volume One: From Anarchy to Anarchism (300 CE to 1939), Black Rose Books, 2005
  47. ^ Ojeili 2001, p. 401.
  48. ^ a b Ojeili 2001, p. 403.
  49. ^ Ojeili 2001, pp. 403–404.
  50. ^ Ojeili 2001, pp. 407–408.
  51. ^ Brinton, Maurice (Goodway, David ed). For Workers' Power: the selected writings of Maurice Brinton. AK Press. 2004. ISBN 1-904859-07-0
  52. ^ Toby Boraman. "Carnival and Class: Anarchism and Councilism in Australasia during the 1970s" in Alex Prichard, Ruth Kinna, Saku Pinta and Dave Berry (eds). Libertarian Socialism: Politics in Black and Red. Palgrave Macmillan, December 2012. p. 263.
  53. ^ Cohn, Jesse (2009). "Anarchism". In Ness, Immanuel (ed.). The International Encyclopedia of Revolution and Protest. Oxford, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. p. 4. ISBN 978-1-4051-9807-3. from the 1890s on, the term 'libertarian socialism' has entered common use as a synonym for anarchism
  54. ^ Leval, Gaston (1959). "Libertarian Socialism: A Practical Outline". Retrieved 22 August 2020 – via The Anarchist Library.
  55. ^ Löwy, Michael; Besancenot, Olivier (2018). "Expanding the horizon: for a Libertarian Marxism". Global Discourse. 8 (2): 1–2. doi:10.1080/23269995.2018.1459332. S2CID 149816533.
  56. ^ Löwy, Michael; Besancenot, Olivier (2018). "Expanding the horizon: for a Libertarian Marxism". Global Discourse. 8 (2): 7–13. doi:10.1080/23269995.2018.1459332. S2CID 149816533.
  57. ^ Price, Wayne (2004). "Libertarian Marxism's Relation to Anarchism". The Utopian. 4: 75–76.
  58. ^ Löwy, Michael; Besancenot, Olivier (2018). "Expanding the horizon: for a Libertarian Marxism". Global Discourse. 8 (2): 3–7. doi:10.1080/23269995.2018.1459332. S2CID 149816533.
  59. ^ Hain, Peter (1995). Ayes to the Left: A Future for Socialism. Lawrence and Wishart. ISBN 978-0-85315-832-5.
  60. ^ Chris Smith said in 2005 that in recent years Cook had been setting out a vision of "libertarian, democratic socialism that was beginning to break the sometimes sterile boundaries of 'old' and 'New' Labour labels."."Chris Smith: The House of Commons was Robin Cook's true home – Commentators, Opinion – Independent.co.uk". London: Comment.independent.co.uk. 2005-08-08. Archived from the original on 2007-09-30. Retrieved 2009-06-24.
  61. ^ Weaver, Adam (5 August 2017). "A Turning Point on the Left? Libertarian Caucus Debuts at Democratic Socialist Conference". Truthout. Retrieved 8 August 2017.
  62. ^ Kellner, Douglas. "Herbert Marcuse". Illuminations. University of Texas at Arlington. Retrieved 23 May 2014. During the 1960s, Marcuse achieved world renown as "the guru of the New Left," publishing many articles and giving lectures and advice to student radicals all over the world. He travelled widely and his work was often discussed in the mass media, becoming one of the few American intellectuals to gain such attention. Never surrendering his revolutionary vision and commitments, Marcuse continued to his death to defend the Marxian theory and libertarian socialism.
  63. ^ Hahnel 2005, pp. 148–149.
  64. ^ Chartier, Gary; Johnson, Charles W. (2011). Markets Not Capitalism: Individualist Anarchism Against Bosses, Inequality, Corporate Power, and Structural Poverty. Brooklyn, NY:Minor Compositions/Autonomedia
  65. ^ Chartier, Gary; Johnson, Charles W. (2011). Markets Not Capitalism: Individualist Anarchism Against Bosses, Inequality, Corporate Power, and Structural Poverty. Brooklyn, NY: Minor Compositions/Autonomedia. p. back cover. "It introduces an eye-opening approach to radical social thought, rooted equally in libertarian socialism and market anarchism."
  66. ^ Carson, Kevin. "Socialism: A Perfectly Good Word Rehabilitated". Center for a Stateless Society. "But there has always been a market-oriented strand of libertarian socialism that emphasizes voluntary cooperation between producers. And markets, properly understood, have always been about cooperation. As a commenter at Reason magazine's Hit&Run blog, remarking on Jesse Walker's link to the Kelly article, put it: "every trade is a cooperative act." In fact, it's a fairly common observation among market anarchists that genuinely free markets have the most legitimate claim to the label "socialism."
  67. ^ Gillis, William (2011). "The Freed Market." In Chartier, Gary and Johnson, Charles. Markets Not Capitalism. Brooklyn, NY:Minor Compositions/Autonomedia. pp. 19–20.

BibliographyEdit

External linksEdit

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