History of lesbianism in the United States

(Redirected from Lesbian american history)

This article addresses the history of lesbianism in the United States. Unless otherwise noted, the members of same-sex female couples discussed here are not known to be lesbian (rather than, for example, bisexual), but they are mentioned as part of discussing the practice of lesbianism—that is, same-sex female sexual and romantic behavior.

Symbol representing lesbian made from two interlocked astronomical symbols for the planet Venus. In biology, the singular symbol represents the female sex.[1][2]
Lesbian feminist pride labrys flag
Lesbian feminist pride labrys flag[3]

1600–1899

edit
 
Lesbian actress Charlotte Cushman, (left) as Romeo, with her sister Susan as Juliet in Romeo and Juliet in 1846. Nineteenth century lesbians like Cushman presented themselves publicly as close friends with their romantic partners.

Laws against lesbian sexual activity were suggested but usually not created or enforced in early American history. In 1636, John Cotton proposed a law for Massachusetts Bay making sex between two women (or two men) a capital offense, but the law was not enacted.[4] It would have read, "Unnatural filthiness, to be punished with death, whether sodomy, which is carnal fellowship of man with man, or woman with woman, or buggery, which is carnal fellowship of man or woman with beasts or fowls."[5] In 1655, the Connecticut Colony passed a law against sodomy between women (as well as between men), but nothing came of this either.[6] In 1779, Thomas Jefferson proposed a law stating that, "Whosoever shall be guilty of rape, polygamy, or sodomy with man or woman shall be punished, if a man, by castration. If a woman, by cutting thro' the cartilage of her nose a hole of one half inch diameter at the least,[7][8][9]" but this also did not become law. However, in 1649 in Plymouth Colony, Sarah White Norman and Mary Vincent Hammon were prosecuted for "lewd behavior with each other upon a bed"; their trial documents are the only known record of sex between female English colonists in North America during the 17th century.[10] Hammon was only admonished, perhaps because she was younger than sixteen,[10] but in 1650 Norman was convicted and required to acknowledge publicly her "unchaste behavior" with Hammon, as well as warned against future offenses.[11] This may be the only conviction for lesbianism in American history.[12]

In the 19th century, lesbians were only accepted if they hid their sexual orientation and were presumed to be merely friends with their partners. For example, the term "Boston marriage" was used to describe a committed relationship between two unmarried women who were usually financially independent and often shared a house;[13] these relationships were presumed to be asexual, and hence the women were respected as "spinsters" by their communities.[14] Notable women in Boston marriages included Sarah Jewett and Annie Adams Fields,[15][better source needed] as well as Jane Addams and Mary Rozet Smith.[16][better source needed]

Some American lesbians in the arts moved in the 19th century from the United States to Rome, including the actress Charlotte Cushman,[17] and sculptors Emma Stebbins[18] and Harriet Hosmer. Around 1890, former acting First Lady Rose Cleveland started a lesbian relationship with Evangeline Marrs Simpson, with explicitly erotic correspondence;[19] this cooled when Evangeline married Henry Benjamin Whipple, but after his death in 1901 the two rekindled their relationship and in 1910 moved to Italy together.[20][21]

1900–1949

edit

Studies on lesbian activity in prisons

edit
 
A same-sex female couple on the cover of a 1915 criminology text.
 
A June 25, 1923 letter written to The Lincoln Star in defense of a lesbian.
 
Special Telegram to The Pittsburgh Post, June 26, 1927, expressing alarm over lesbianism in girls' schools.

The earliest published studies of lesbian activity were written in the early 20th century, and many were based on observations of, and data gathered from, incarcerated women. Margaret Otis published "A Perversion Not Commonly Noted" in the 1913 Journal of Psychology, coupling a decidedly Puritanical moral foundation with an almost revolutionary sympathy for lesbian relationships; her focus revolved more around her revulsion for sexual contact between those of different ethnic backgrounds, yet offered an almost radical tolerance of the lesbian relations themselves, as Otis noted, "Sometimes the love (of one young woman for another) is very real and seems almost ennobling".[22] This document provided a rare view from a tightly controlled setting monitored by a corrections supervisor. Kate Richards O'Hare, imprisoned in 1917 for five years under the Espionage Act of 1917, published a firsthand account of incarcerated women In Prison[23] complete with frightening accounts of lesbian sexual abuse among inmates. So wrote O'Hare: "...A thorough education in sex perversions is part of the educational system of most prisons, and for the most part the underkeepers [sic] and the stool pigeons are very efficient teachers..." O'Hare then recounted a systematic induction of women into a cycle of forced prostitution to which authorities turned a blind eye: "...there seems to be considerable ground for the commonly accepted belief of the prison inmates that much of its graft and profits may percolate upward to the under officials...the...stool pigeon...handled the vices so rampant in the prison...she, in fact, held the power of life and death over us, by being able to secure endless punishments in the blind, she could and did compel indulgence in this vice in order that its profits might be secured".[22]

Lesbian community

edit

Early academic study of lesbian community include lesbian Mildred Berryman's 1930's groundbreaking[24]: 897–898 [25] The Psychological Phenomena of the Homosexual[26]: 223, 228  on 23 lesbian women, whom she met through the Salt Lake City Bohemian Club.[27][28][29]: 66  In the study most of the subjects (many of whom had Mormon background)[30][31][32] reported experiencing erotic interest in others of the same sex since childhood,[26]: 120, 222  and exhibited self-identity and community identity[33] as sexual minorities.[26]: 222  During the 1920s lesbian subcultures were beginning to become more established in several larger US cities.[34] However, police raids happened on lesbian places, resulting in their closure, such as the Eve's Hangout in Greenwich Village, after the deportation of Eva Kotchever for obscenity.[35]

Lesbians in literature

edit
 
Gertrude Stein

Lesbians also became somewhat more prominent in literature at this time. In the early 20th century, Paris became a haven for many lesbian writers who set up salons there and were able to live their lives in relative openness. The most famous Americans of these were Gertrude Stein and Alice B. Toklas, who lived together there as a couple for many years. In 1922, Gertrude Stein published "Miss Furr and Miss Skeene", a story based on the American couple Maud Hunt Squire and Ethel Mars, artists who visited Stein and Toklas in Paris at Stein's salon.[36][37][38] In 1933, Stein published The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas, a modernist memoir of her Paris years written in the voice of Toklas, which became a literary bestseller.[39] Another significant early 20th century writer about lesbian themes was Djuna Barnes, who wrote the book Nightwood. Both Barnes and Gertrude Stein were visitors to another influential Parisian salon hosted by American expatriate Nathalie Barney, as was sculptor Thelma Wood, photographer Berenice Abbott and painter Romaine Brooks.[40] In 1923, lesbian Elsa Gidlow, born in England, published the first volume of openly lesbian love poetry in the United States, On A Grey Thread.

Yet, openly lesbian literature was still subject to censorship. In 1928, British lesbian author Radclyffe Hall wrote a tragic novel of lesbian love, The Well of Loneliness. After the book was banned in England, Hall lost her first American publisher.[41][42] In New York, John Saxton Sumner of the New York Society for the Suppression of Vice and several police detectives seized 865 copies of The Well from her second American publisher's offices, and Donald Friede was charged with selling an obscene publication. But Friede and his publishing partner Pascal Covici had already moved the printing plates out of New York in order to continue publishing the book. By the time the case came to trial, it had already been reprinted six times. Despite its price of $5 — twice the cost of an average novel — it would sell over 100,000 copies in its first year.[43]

In the United States, as in the United Kingdom, the Hicklin test of obscenity applied,[44] but New York case law had established that books should be judged by their effects on adults rather than on children and that literary merit was relevant.[43] Morris Ernst, co-founder of the American Civil Liberties Union, obtained statements from authors, including Theodore Dreiser, Ernest Hemingway, F. Scott Fitzgerald, Edna St. Vincent Millay, Sinclair Lewis, Sherwood Anderson, H. L. Mencken, Upton Sinclair, Ellen Glasgow, and John Dos Passos.[45] To make sure these supporters did not go unheard, he incorporated their opinions into his brief. His argument relied on a comparison with Mademoiselle de Maupin by Théophile Gautier, which had been cleared of obscenity in the 1922 case Halsey v. New York. Mademoiselle de Maupin described a lesbian relationship in more explicit terms than The Well did. According to Ernst, The Well had greater social value because it was more serious in tone and made a case against misunderstanding and intolerance.[43] In an opinion issued on February 19, 1929, Magistrate Hyman Bushel declined to take the book's literary qualities into account and said The Well was "calculated to deprave and corrupt minds open to its immoral influences". Under New York law, however, Bushel was not a trier of fact; he could only remand the case to the New York Court of Special Sessions for judgment. On 19 April, that court issued a three-paragraph decision stating that The Well's theme — a "delicate social problem" — did not violate the law unless written in such a way as to make it obscene. After "a careful reading of the entire book", they cleared it of all charges.[43] Covici-Friede then imported a copy of the Pegasus Press edition from France as a further test case and to solidify the book's U.S. copyright.[43] Customs barred the book from entering the country, which might also have prevented it from being shipped from state to state.[46] The United States Customs Court, however, ruled that the book did not contain "one word, phrase, sentence or paragraph which could be truthfully pointed out as offensive to modesty".[47]

Most literature of the 1930s, '40s, and early '50s presented lesbian life as tragedy, ending with either the suicide of the lesbian character or her conversion to heterosexuality.[48] This was required so that the authorities did not declare the literature obscene.[49] For example, The Stone Wall, a lesbian autobiography with an unhappy ending, was published in 1930 under the pseudonym Mary Casal.[48] It was one of the first lesbian autobiographies. Yet as early as 1939, Frances V. Rummell, an educator and a teacher of French at Stephens College, published the first explicitly lesbian autobiography in which two women end up happily together, titled Diana: A Strange Autobiography.[50] This autobiography was published with a note saying, "The publishers wish it expressly understood that this is a true story, the first of its kind ever offered to the general reading public" [50] The first American magazine written for lesbians, Vice Versa: America's Gayest Magazine, was published from 1947–1948. It was written by a lesbian secretary named Edith Eyde, writing under the pen name Lisa Ben, an anagram for lesbian.[51] She produced only nine issues of Vice Versa, typing two originals of each with carbons.[52] She learned that she could not mail them due to possible obscenity charges, and even had difficulty distributing them by hand in lesbian bars such as the If Club.[52]

Furthermore, the Hays Code, which was in operation from 1930 until 1967, prohibited the depiction of homosexuality in all Hollywood films.[53][54]

Lesbians in the military

edit
 
USS Oak Hill FC 2nd Class Marissa Gaeta kisses her fiancé, FC 3rd Class Citlalic Snell, after three-month deployment. Virginia Beach, VA (2011)

Many lesbians found solace in the all-female environment of the United States Women's Army Corps (WAC), but this demanded secrecy, as lesbians were not allowed to serve openly in the U.S. military.[55][56][57] Over the years the military not only dismissed women who announced their lesbianism, but sometimes went on "witch hunts" for lesbians in the ranks.[56][57]

1950–1999

edit

1950s: Lesbianism in literature

edit

It was not until the mid-1950s that obscenity regulations began to relax and happy endings to lesbian romances became possible.[49] However, publications addressing homosexuality were officially deemed obscene under the Comstock Act until 1958.[58]

Spring Fire, the first lesbian paperback novel, and considered the beginning of the lesbian pulp fiction genre, was published in 1952 and sold 1.5 million copies.[59][60] It was written by lesbian author Marijane Meaker under the pen name "Vin Packer",[59] and ended unhappily.[49]

 
Cover of Spring Fire (1952), the first lesbian paperback novel, by Vin Packer (pen name of Marijane Meaker)

1952 also saw the publication of lesbian classic The Price of Salt by lesbian author Patricia Highsmith, published under the pseudonym "Claire Morgan", in which the women break up but are implied to get back together in the end (the novel was republished as Carol in 1990 under Highsmith's name).[61][62][63] In her 2003 memoir, Marijane Meaker said that, for many years, The Price of Salt was "the only lesbian novel, in either hard or soft cover, with a happy ending".[64]

Lesbian pulp fiction novels allowed young lesbian women to have some presence of representation in literature at the time. These works were representative but still limited by homophobic tones in the novels. Pulp novels were a double-edged sword for young lesbian women, as they perpetuated homophobic ideas but allowed for a silent culture to be seen by others in the public as well as read stories about themselves.[65]

1950s: The Kinsey Report

edit

In 1953, Alfred Kinsey published "Sexual Behavior in the Human Female," in which he noted that 13% of the women he studied had at least one homosexual experience to orgasm (vs. 37% for men), while including homosexual experience that did not lead to orgasm raised the figure for women to 20%.[66] In addition, Kinsey noted that somewhere between 1% and 2% of the women he studied were exclusively homosexual (vs. 4% of the men).[66]

edit

On April 27, 1953, President Eisenhower issued Executive Order 10450, which banned gay men and lesbians from working for any agency of the federal government.[67] It was not until 1973 that a federal judge ruled that a person's sexual orientation alone could not be the sole reason for termination from federal employment,[68] and not until 1975 that the United States Civil Service Commission announced that they would consider applications by gays and lesbians on a case by case basis.[68]

1950s – 1970s Rise of the LGBTQ rights movement

edit

In the 1950s the lesbian rights movement began in America. The Daughters of Bilitis (DOB) was founded in San Francisco in 1955 by four female couples (including Del Martin and Phyllis Lyon) and was the first national lesbian political and social organization in the United States.[69][70] The group's name came from "The Songs of Bilitis," a lesbian-themed song cycle by French poet Pierre Louÿs, which described the fictional Bilitis as a resident of the Isle of Lesbos alongside Sappho.[70] DOB's activities included hosting public forums on homosexuality, offering support to isolated, married, and mothering lesbians, and participating in research activities.[70] Del Martin became DOB's first president, and Phyllis Lyon became the editor of the organization's monthly lesbian magazine, The Ladder, which was launched in October 1956 and continued until 1972, having reached print runs of almost 3,800 copies.[70] The show Confidential File on the station KTTV covered the 1962 convention of DOB and aired after Confidential File became syndicated nationally; this was probably the first American national broadcast that specifically covered lesbianism.[71] Kay Lahusen, the first openly gay or lesbian photojournalist of the gay rights movement,[72] photographed lesbians for several of the covers of The Ladder from 1964 to 1966 while her partner, Barbara Gittings, was the editor; previously there had been drawings of people and cats and such on the covers.[73] The first photograph of lesbians on the cover was done in September 1964, showing two women from the back, on a beach looking out to sea.[73] The first lesbian to appear on the cover with her face showing was Lilli Vincenz in January 1966.[73] Daughters of Bilitis ended in 1970.[70]

The Cooper Do-nuts Riot was a May 1959 incident in Los Angeles, in which lesbians, transgender women, drag queens, and gay men rioted, one of the first LGBTQ uprisings in the US.[74] The incident was sparked by police harassment of LGBT people at a 24-hour cafe called "Cooper Do-nuts".

The first public protests for equal rights for gay and lesbian people were staged at governmental offices and historic landmarks in New York, Philadelphia, and Washington, D.C., between 1965 and 1969.[75] In DC, protesters picketed in front of the White House, Pentagon, and the U.S. Civil Service Commission.[75] Lilli Vincenz was the only self-identified lesbian to participate in the second White House picket.[76] The other two women at that picket were heterosexually married, though one, J.D., identified herself as a bisexual.[76] Lesbian activist Barbara Gittings was also among the picketers of the White House at some protests, and often among the annual picketers outside Independence Hall.[77][75] In 1965, Gittings marched in the first gay picket lines at the White House,[78] the US State Department, and at Independence Hall to protest the federal government's policy on discrimination against gay people, holding a sign that read "Sexual preference is irrelevant to federal employment."[79][80] Gittings and Frank Kameny led the Annual Reminder, the first pickets organized by homophile organizations specifically to demand equality for gays and lesbians, which included activists from New York, Washington, D.C., and Philadelphia and took place each Fourth of July from 1965 to 1969 in front of Independence Hall.

Political lesbianism, which embraces the theory that sexual orientation is a political and feminist choice, and advocates lesbianism as a positive alternative to heterosexuality for women as part of the struggle against sexism, originated in the late 1960s among second wave radical feminists. Ti-Grace Atkinson, a lesbian and radical feminist who helped to found the group The Feminists, is attributed with the phrase that embodies the movement: "Feminism is the theory; lesbianism is the practice."[81] The Feminists, also known as Feminists—A Political Organization to Annihilate Sex Roles, was a radical feminist group active in New York City from 1968 to 1973. They at first advocated that women practice celibacy, and later came to advocate political lesbianism.

The modern LGBT civil rights movement began in 1969 with the Stonewall Riots, when police raided a gay bar called the Stonewall Inn. A scuffle broke out when a woman in handcuffs was escorted from the door of the bar to the waiting police wagon several times. She escaped repeatedly and fought with four of the police, swearing and shouting, for about ten minutes. Described as "a typical New York butch" and "a dyke–stone butch", she had been hit on the head by an officer with a baton for, as one witness claimed, complaining that her handcuffs were too tight.[82] Bystanders recalled that the woman, whose identity remains unknown (Stormé DeLarverie, who was a lesbian, has been identified by some, including herself, as the woman, but accounts vary [83][84]), sparked the crowd to fight when she looked at bystanders and shouted, "Why don't you guys do something?" After an officer picked her up and heaved her into the back of the wagon,[85] the crowd became a mob and went "berserk": "It was at that moment that the scene became explosive."[86] Lesbian Martha Shelley was also in Greenwich Village the night of the Stonewall Riot with women who were starting a Daughters of Bilitis chapter in Boston.[87] Recognizing the significance of the event and being politically aware[88] she proposed a protest march and as a result DOB and Mattachine sponsored a demonstration.[89] According to an article in the program for the first San Francisco pride march, she was one of the first four members of the Gay Liberation Front, the others being Michael Brown, Jerry Hoose, and Jim Owles.

1970s: Lesbians and feminism

edit
 
Democratic National Congress (1980)

Lesbians were also active in the feminist movement. The first time lesbian concerns were introduced into the National Organization for Women came in 1969, when Ivy Bottini, an open lesbian who was then president of the New York NOW chapter, held a public forum titled "Is Lesbianism a Feminist Issue?".[90] However, the national president, Betty Friedan, was against lesbian participation in the movement. In 1969 she referred to growing lesbian visibility as a "lavender menace" and fired openly lesbian newsletter editor Rita Mae Brown, and in 1970 she engineered the expulsion of lesbians, including Bottini, from the New York chapter.[91][92]

At the 1970 Congress to Unite Women, on the first evening when all 400 feminists were assembled in the auditorium, twenty women wearing t-shirts that read "Lavender Menace" came to the front of the room and faced the audience.[93] One of the women then read their group's paper, "The Woman-Identified Woman", which was the first major lesbian feminist statement.[93][94] The group, who later named themselves Radicalesbians, were among the first to challenge the heterosexism of heterosexual feminists and to describe lesbian experience in positive terms.[95][96] In 1971 NOW passed a resolution declaring "that a woman's right to her own person includes the right to define and express her own sexuality and to choose her own lifestyle," as well as a conference resolution stating that forcing lesbian mothers to stay in marriages or to live a secret existence in an effort to keep their children was unjust.[97] That year NOW also committed to offering legal and moral support in a test case involving child custody rights of lesbian mothers.[97] In 1973 the NOW Task Force on Sexuality and Lesbianism was established.[97]

At first, Friedan ignored lesbians in NOW and objected to what she saw as demands for equal time.[98] She wrote later, "'Homosexuality ... is not, in my opinion, what the women's movement is all about.'"[99] She refused to wear a purple armband or self-identify as a lesbian as an act of political solidarity, considering it not part of the mainstream issues of abortion and child care.[100] She later wrote, "The women's movement was not about sex, but about equal opportunity in jobs and all the rest of it. Yes, I suppose you have to say that freedom of sexual choice is part of that, but it shouldn't be the main issue ...."[101] Friedan eventually admitted that "the whole idea of homosexuality made me profoundly uneasy."[98] and acknowledged that she had been very square and was uncomfortable about lesbianism.

 
Audre Lorde, Meridel Lesueur, Adrienne Rich (1980)

At the 1977 National Women's Conference, Friedan seconded the lesbian rights resolution "which everyone thought I would oppose" in order to "preempt any debate" and move on to other issues she believed were more important and less divisive in the effort to add the Equal Rights Amendment to the United States Constitution.[102] The lesbian rights resolution passed.[103] In November 1977 the National Women's Conference issued the National Plan of Action, which stated in part, "Congress, State, and local legislatures should enact legislation to eliminate discrimination on the basis of sexual and affectional preference in areas including, but not limited to, employment, housing, public accommodations, credit, public facilities, government funding, and the military. State legislatures should reform their penal codes or repeal State laws that restrict private sexual behavior between consenting adults. State legislatures should enact legislation that would prohibit consideration of sexual or affectional orientation as a factor in any judicial determination of child custody or visitation rights. Rather, child custody cases should be evaluated solely on the merits of which party is the better parent, without regard to that person's sexual and affectional orientation."[104] Del Martin was the first open lesbian elected to NOW's board of directors, and Del Martin and Phyllis Lyon were the first lesbian couple to join NOW.[105][106][69]

Lesbian feminism is a cultural movement and critical perspective, most influential in the 1970s and early 1980s (primarily in North America and Western Europe), that encourages women to direct their energies toward other women rather than men, and often advocates lesbianism as the logical result of feminism.[107] Some key American lesbian feminist thinkers and activists are Charlotte Bunch, Rita Mae Brown, Adrienne Rich, Audre Lorde, Marilyn Frye, and Mary Daly.

Lesbian separatism, a subset of lesbian feminism, became popular in the 1970s as some lesbians doubted whether mainstream society or even the LGBT movement had anything to offer them. In 1970, seven women (including Del Martin) confronted the North Conference of Homophile [meaning homosexual] Organizations about the relevance of the gay rights movement to the women within it. The delegates passed a resolution in favor of women's liberation, but Del Martin felt they had not done enough, and wrote "If That's All There Is", an influential 1970 essay in which she decried gay rights organizations as sexist.[108][109] In the summer of 1971, a lesbian group calling themselves "The Furies" formed a commune open to lesbians only, where they put out a monthly newspaper. "The Furies" consisted of twelve women, aged eighteen to twenty-eight, all feminists, all lesbians, all white, with three children among them.[110] They shared chores and clothes, lived together, held some of their money in common, and slept on mattresses on a common floor.[110] They also started a school to teach women auto and home repair so they would not be dependent on men.[110] The newspaper lasted from January 1972 to June 1973;[111] the commune itself ended in 1972.[112] In 1973, lesbian separatist and cultural critic Jill Johnston published Lesbian Nation, after scandalizing Norman Mailer and others in attendance at a 1971 New York debate on feminism by kissing and rolling around the floor with another woman and announcing, "All women are lesbians, except those who don't know it yet."[113] Another 1970s separatist group, the Lincoln Legion of Lesbians, promoted lesbian solidarity and socal events into the 1990s. It was also political, bringing equal rights for gay and lesbian people to a vote in Nebraska.[114]

 
Lesbian pride flag with double-Venus symbol[1]
(in biology and botany, the Venus symbol represents the female sex[2])

Olivia Records was a collective founded in 1973 to record and market women's music. Olivia Records, named after the heroine of a 1949 pulp novel by Dorothy Bussy who fell in love with her headmistress at French boarding school (the heroine and the novel both being named Olivia), was the brainchild of ten lesbian feminists (the Furies and Radicalesbians) living in Washington, D.C., who wanted to create a feminist organization with an economic base. The Lesbian Herstory Archives, a New York City-based archive, community center, and museum dedicated to preserving lesbian history, located in Park Slope, Brooklyn, was founded in 1974. It was founded by lesbian members of the Gay Academic Union who had organized a group to discuss sexism within that organization, specifically Joan Nestle, Deborah Edel, Sahli Cavallo, Pamela Oline, and Julia Stanley.

Lesbian activist Barbara Gittings remained in the LGBT movement in the 1970s. In that decade, Gittings was most involved in the American Library Association, especially its gay caucus, the first such in a professional organization, in order to promote positive literature about homosexuality in libraries. She was also involved in getting homosexuality accepted by psychiatry, and was a discussion leader for the American Psychiatric Association panel on "Life Styles of Non-Patient Homosexuals," which included Del Martin as one of six panelists.[115] In 1972, she organized the appearance of "Dr. H. Anonymous," a gay psychiatrist who appeared wearing a mask to conceal his identity and joined a panel that she and others participated in titled "Psychiatry: Friend or Foe to Homosexuals? A Dialogue".[115] This spurred the beginning of an official homosexual group within the APA.[116] Also in 1972, and again in 1976 and 1978, Barbara organized and staffed exhibits on homosexuality at yearly APA conferences.[115] Largely due to these efforts, the APA removed homosexuality from its list of mental disorders in 1973.[116] Gay rights activist Frank Kameny called Barbara the "Founding Mother" of the movement.[117]

Lesbian separatist ideology led to the establishment of sex segregated womyn's land communities,[118] and creation of the women-only Michigan Womyn's Music Festival.[119]

1970s Political action

edit
 
Sally Miller Gearhart worked with Harvey Milk to help defeat the Briggs Initiative in the 1970s

In the 1970s open lesbians also began their first forays into American politics. In 1972, Nancy Wechsler became the first openly gay or lesbian person in political office in America; she was elected to the Ann Arbor City Council in 1972 as a member of the Human Rights Party and came out as a lesbian during her first and only term there.[120] That same year, Madeline Davis became the first openly lesbian delegate elected to a major political convention when she was elected to the Democratic National Convention in Miami, Florida. She addressed the convention in support of the inclusion of a gay rights plank in the Democratic Party platform. In 1974, Elaine Noble became the first openly gay or lesbian candidate ever elected to a state-level office in America when she was elected to the Massachusetts House of Representatives.[121] She had come out as a lesbian during her campaign.[121] Furthermore, the first openly gay or lesbian person to be elected to any political office in America was Kathy Kozachenko, who was elected to the Ann Arbor City Council in April 1974.[122] In 1977, Anne Kronenberg was Harvey Milk's campaign manager during his San Francisco Board of Supervisors campaign, and she later worked as his aide while he held that office.[123] (While Kronenberg identified as a lesbian at that time, she later fell in love with and married a man she met in Washington, D.C., in the 1980s.[124]) In 1978, lesbian Sally Miller Gearhart fought alongside Harvey Milk to defeat Proposition 6 (also known as the "Briggs Initiative" because it was sponsored by John Briggs), which would have banned gays and lesbians from teaching in public schools in California.[125] Gearhart debated John Briggs about the initiative, which was defeated.[126][127][128] A clip of their debate appeared in the documentary film The Times of Harvey Milk, which also included Gearhart talking about working with Milk against Proposition 6, and appearances by Kronenberg.

In 1979, the first National March on Washington for Lesbian and Gay Rights was held, in Washington, D.C., on October 14. It drew between 75,000 and 125,000[129] people together to demand equal civil rights and urge the passage of protective civil rights legislation.[130] The march was led by the Salsa Soul Sisters, a lesbian group, who carried the official march banner. Charlotte Bunch and Audre Lorde were the only out lesbians who spoke at the main rally.[131]

San Francisco lesbian bar Peg's Place[132][133] was the site of an assault in 1979 by off-duty members of the San Francisco vice squad,[134] an event which drew national attention to other incidents of anti-gay violence and police harassment of the LGBT community[135] and helped propel a (unsuccessful[136]) citywide proposition to ban the city's vice squad altogether.[137] Historians have written about the incident when describing the tension that existed between the police and the LGBT community during the late 1970s.[138][139][140][141][142]

1970s Conflict between some lesbian feminists and transgender women

edit

The 1970s also saw conflict between the transgender and lesbian communities in America. A dispute began in 1973, when the West Coast Lesbian Conference split over a scheduled performance by the lesbian transgender folk-singer Beth Elliott, who had helped to create the conference and was on its organization committee as well as having been asked to perform as a singer in the conference's entertainment program.[143][144][145] After a vote in her favor,[146] Elliot gave a brief performance and went on to leave the conference.[147][143] The following day, keynote speaker Robin Morgan gave her address, which she had altered after the events of the previous night.[148] In the speech, titled "Lesbianism and Feminism: Synonyms or Contradictions?" Morgan referred to Elliott as a "gatecrashing...male transvestite"[143] and, using male pronouns, charged her as "an opportunist, an infiltrator, and a destroyer-with the mentality of a rapist."[143][149] Elliott had served as vice-president of the San Francisco chapter of the Daughters of Bilitis, and edited the chapter's newsletter, Sisters, but was expelled from the DOB in 1973 because she was transgender, as were all transgender women.[148] When Del Martin announced the vote against transgender women in the DOB, the editorial staff of Sisters walked out, leaving the group over the decision.[150][148][151][152] As well, some lesbians protested the fact that lesbian transgender woman Sandy Stone was employed at Olivia Records as Olivia's sound engineer from ca. 1974-1978, recording and mixing all Olivia product during this period. In 1979, lesbian radical feminist activist Janice Raymond released the book The Transsexual Empire: The Making of the She-Male, which was a critique of a patriarchal medical and psychiatric establishment, and which maintained that transsexualism is based on the "patriarchal myths" of "male mothering," and "making of woman according to man's image." Raymond argued that this was done in order "to colonize feminist identification, culture, politics and sexuality," adding: "All transsexuals rape women's bodies by reducing the real female form to an artifact, appropriating this body for themselves .... Transsexuals merely cut off the most obvious means of invading women, so that they seem non-invasive." For example, in The Transsexual Empire: The Making of the She-Male.[153] Raymond asserted that Sandy Stone was working to destroy the Olivia Records collective and womanhood in general with "male energy." In 1976, prior to publication, Raymond sent a draft of the chapter addressing Stone to the Olivia collective "for comment", possibly with the intention of outing Stone. However, Stone had informed the collective of her transgender status before joining. The collective replied that they disagreed with Raymond's description of transgender identity and that they felt differently about Stone's place in and effect on the collective. Raymond responded to this in the published version of her manuscript:

Masculine behavior is notably obtrusive. It is significant that transsexually constructed lesbian feminists have inserted themselves into positions of importance and/or performance in the feminist community. Sandy Stone, the transsexual engineer with Olivia Records, an "all-women" recording company, illustrates this well. Stone is not only crucial to the Olivia enterprise but plays a very dominant role there. The...visibility he achieved in the aftermath of the Olivia controversy...only serves to enhance his previously dominant role and to divide women, as men frequently do, when they make their presence necessary and vital to women. As one woman wrote: "I feel raped when Olivia passes off Sandy...as a real woman. After all his male privilege, is he going to cash in on lesbian feminist culture too?"[153]

Members of the collective responded in turn by defending Stone in various publications. Stone remained a member of the women's collective and continued to record Olivia artists until political dissension over transgender topics, culminating in 1979 with the threat of a boycott of Olivia products. Finally, Stone resigned.[154][155][152]

1970s – 1980s Lesbian/feminist sex wars

edit

The lesbian sex wars, also known as the feminist sex wars, or simply the sex wars or porn wars, are debates amongst feminists regarding a number of issues broadly relating to sexuality and sexual activity, which polarized into two sides during the late 1970s and early 1980s, and the aftermath of this polarization of feminist views during the sex wars continues to this day.[156] The sides were characterized by anti-porn feminist and sex-positive feminist groups with disagreements regarding sexuality, including the role of trans women in the lesbian community, lesbian sexual practices, erotica, prostitution, sadomasochism and other sexual issues. The feminist movement was deeply divided as a result of these debates.[157][158][159][160][161] Samois, the earliest known lesbian S/M organization in the United States, was founded in San Francisco in 1978.[162][163] During the late 1970s and the 1980s, lesbian Andrea Dworkin gained national fame as a spokeswoman for the feminist anti-pornography movement, and for her writing on pornography and sexuality, particularly in Pornography: Men Possessing Women (1981) and Intercourse (1987), which remain her two most widely known books.

1970s – 1980s: Challenge to white feminists by lesbians of color

edit
 
Gloria Anzaldua, writer and editor

In 1977, a Bostonian Black lesbian feminist organization called the Combahee River Collective published their statement which is an important artifact for Black and/or lesbian feminism and the development of identity politics.[164] The Combahee River Collective Statement made legible the concerns of Black women-loving women who felt as though they were being ignored by mainstream feminists and the civil rights movement.[165] Their attention to overlapping oppressions and refusal to accept essentialist, universalizing feminist ideologies has helped to shape third-wave and contemporary feminism.[166]

Another important feminist work published in the 1980s was This Bridge Called My Back: Writings by Radical Women of Color, a feminist anthology edited by American lesbians Cherríe Moraga and Gloria E. Anzaldúa. The anthology was first published in 1981 by Persephone Press, and the second edition was published in 1983 by Kitchen Table: Women of Color Press. The book was out in its third edition, published by Third Woman Press, until 2008, when its contract with Third Woman Press expired and it went out of print. This Bridge centered the experiences of women of color, offering a serious challenge to white feminists who made claims to solidarity based on sisterhood. Writings in the anthology, along with works by other prominent feminists of color, call for a greater prominence within feminism for race-related subjectivities, and ultimately laid the foundation for third wave feminism. This Bridge has become one of the most cited books in feminist theorizing. Another important event for lesbians of color was that "Becoming Visible: The First Black Lesbian Conference" was held at the Women's Building, from October 17 to 19, 1980. It has been credited as the first conference for African-American lesbian women.[167]

1980s: Lesbians and religion

edit

Lesbians had some success in being integrated into religious life in the 1980s. In 1984 Reconstructionist Judaism became the first Jewish denomination to allow openly lesbian rabbis and cantors.[168] In 1988 Stacy Offner became the first openly lesbian rabbi hired by a mainstream Jewish congregation, Shir Tikvah Congregation of Minneapolis (a Reform Jewish congregation).[169][170] Years of debate in the 1980s also led to Reform Judaism deciding to allow openly lesbian rabbis and cantors in 1990.[171]

1990s: Victories and political power

edit

In re Guardianship of Kowalski, 478 N.W.2d 790 (Minn. Ct. App. 1991), was a Minnesota Court of Appeals case that established a lesbian's partner as her legal guardian after she (Sharon Kowalski) became incapacitated following an automobile accident. Because the case was contested by Kowalski's parents and family and initially resulted in the partner (Karen Thompson) being excluded for several years from visiting Kowalski, the gay community celebrated the final resolution in favor of the partner as a victory for gay rights.

The Lesbian Avengers began in New York City in 1992 as "a direct action group focused on issues vital to lesbian survival and visibility."[172][173] Dozens of other chapters quickly emerged worldwide, a few expanding their mission to include questions of gender, race, and class. Newsweek reporter Eloise Salholz, covering the 1993 LGBT March on Washington, believed the Lesbian Avengers were so popular because they were founded at a moment when lesbians were increasingly tired of working on issues, like AIDS and abortion, while their own problems went unsolved.[174] Most importantly, lesbians were frustrated with invisibility in society at large, and invisibility and misogyny in the LGBT community.[174]

From 1993 until 2011, lesbians were allowed to serve in the military, but only if they kept their sexuality secret under what was known as the "Don't Ask Don't Tell" policy.[55]

In the 1990s lesbians also became more visible in politics. In 1990, Dale McCormick became the first open lesbian elected to a state Senate (she was elected to the Maine Senate).[175] In 1991, Sherry Harris was elected to the City Council in Seattle, Washington, making her the first openly lesbian African-American elected official.[176] In 1993, Roberta Achtenberg became the first openly gay or lesbian person to be nominated by the president and confirmed by the U.S. Senate when she was appointed to the position of Assistant Secretary for Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity by President Bill Clinton.[177] Deborah Batts became the first openly gay or lesbian federal judge in 1994; she was appointed to the U.S. District Court in New York.[178][179] In 1998 Tammy Baldwin became the first openly gay or lesbian non-incumbent ever elected to Congress, and the first open lesbian ever elected to Congress, winning Wisconsin's 2nd congressional district seat over Josephine Musser.[180][181]

1990s: Lesbianism in the media

edit
 
Ellen DeGeneres (1994), one of the first openly lesbian American celebrities

Entertainment also began to show more lesbian stories and openly lesbian performers. In 1991, the first lesbian kiss on television occurred on L.A. Law between the fictional characters of C.J. Lamb (played by Amanda Donohoe) and Abby (Michele Greene).[182] Singer Melissa Etheridge came out as a lesbian in 1993, during the Triangle Ball, the first inaugural ball to ever be held in honor of gays and lesbians.[183] Subsequently her album Your Little Secret went multiplatinum, making her one of the most successful openly lesbian singers ever.[184] She also won a Grammy Award in 1995 for Best Female Rock Vocalist.[185][186][187]

In 1996, the first lesbian wedding on television was held for fictional characters Carol (played by Jane Sibbett) and Susan (played by Jessica Hecht) on Friends.[188] In 1997, Ellen DeGeneres came out as a lesbian, one of the first celebrities to do so, and later that year her character Ellen Morgan came out as a lesbian on the TV show Ellen, making her the first openly lesbian actress to play an openly lesbian character on television.[189][190][191]

edit

There were several prominent legal successes for lesbians in the 1990s. Hawaii's denial of marriage licenses to same-sex couples was first challenged in state court in 1991 in Baehr v. Miike (originally Baehr v. Lewin) and the plaintiffs (two same-sex female couples, Ninia Baehr and Genora Dancel, and Antoinette Pregil and Tammy Rodrigues, as well as a same-sex male couple) initially met with some success. But Hawaii voters modified the state constitution in 1998 to allow the legislature to restrict marriage to mixed-sex couples. By the time the Supreme Court of Hawaii considered the final appeal in the case in 1999, it upheld the state's ban on same-sex marriage, but same-sex marriage was legalized in Hawaii in 2013. In 1993 the "Don't Ask Don't Tell" policy was enacted, which mandated that the military could not ask servicemembers about their sexual orientation.[192][193] However, until the policy was ended in 2011 service members were still expelled from the military if they engaged in sexual conduct with a member of the same sex, stated that they were lesbian, gay, or bisexual, and/or married or attempted to marry someone of the same sex.[194] In 1994, fear of persecution due to sexual orientation became grounds for asylum in the United States.[195] Domestic partnerships were legalized in California in 1999 - the first state to do so, and therefore, the first state to legally recognize same-sex relationships.[196] Lesbian legislator Carole Migden was the primary author and sponsor of the domestic partnership bills.[197] Several other states have legalized domestic partnerships since.

2000–2020

edit

Civil unions and same sex marriage

edit

2000

edit

In 2000, civil unions were legalized in Vermont (the first state to do so) and Carolyn Conrad and Kathleen Peterson became the first couple in the United States to be civilly united.[198] Several other states have legalized civil unions since. Same-sex marriages also began to be legally recognized in the 2000s.

2004

edit

Del Martin and Phyllis Lyon became the first same-sex couple to be legally married in the United States in 2004,[199] when San Francisco mayor Gavin Newsom allowed city hall to grant marriage licenses to same-sex couples.[200] However, all same-sex marriages done in 2004 in California were annulled.[201] After the California Supreme Court decision in 2008 that granted same-sex couples in California the right to marry, Del Martin and Phyllis Lyon remarried, and were again the first same-sex couple in the state to marry.[202] [203] Later in 2008 Proposition 8 illegalized same-sex marriage in California until 2013 (see below), but the marriages that occurred between the California Supreme Court decision legalizing same-sex marriage and the approval of Proposition 8 illegalizing it are still considered valid, including the marriage of Del Martin and Phyllis Lyon.[204] However, Del Martin died in 2008.[205]

 
Del Martin and Phyllis Lyon, the first same sex couple to be legally wed in the United States (2004)

In 2004, same-sex marriage was legalized in the state of Massachusetts, and Marcia Hams and Sue Shepherd became the first same-sex couple to receive a marriage license in Massachusetts.[206][207] Mary Bonauto, herself a lesbian, had argued and won the case that legalized same-sex marriage in the state of Massachusetts in 2003.[208][209] In March 2004, same-sex marriage was legalized in part of Oregon, as after researching the issue and getting two legal opinions, the commissioners decided Oregon's Constitution would not allow them to discriminate against same-sex couples. The Chairwoman of the Board of Commissioners ordered the clerk to begin issuing marriage licenses.[210] Mary Li of Portland and her partner, 42-year-old Becky Kennedy, became the first same-sex couple to marry in Oregon.[211] However, later that year, Oregon voters passed a constitutional amendment defining marriage as involving one man and one woman.[212] The same-sex marriages from 2004 were ruled void by the Oregon Supreme Court in 2005.[213]

2008

edit

Same-sex marriage was legalized in Connecticut in 2008, and state Rep. Beth Bye and her girlfriend Tracey Wilson became the first same-sex couple to marry in Connecticut.[214][215] That same year, at the request of a same-sex female couple (Kitzen and Jeni Branting), the Coquille Indian Tribe on the southern Oregon coast adopted a law recognizing same-sex marriage. Tribal law specialists said the Coquille may be the first tribe to sanction such marriages.[216] In 2009 Kitzen and Jeni Branting married in the Coquille Indian tribe's Coos Bay plankhouse, a 3-year-old meeting hall built in traditional Coquille style with cedar plank walls. They were the first same-sex couple to have their marriage recognized by the tribe, of which Kitzen was a member.[217][218]

2009

edit

Same-sex marriage was legalized in Iowa in 2009, and Shelley Wolfe and Melisa Keeton became the first same-sex female couple (and the second same-sex couple) to marry in Iowa.[219][220] Same-sex marriage was legalized in Vermont in 2009,[221] and Claire Williams and Cori Giroux became one of the first same-sex couples to marry in Vermont (others including them married the moment same-sex marriage was legalized).

2010

edit
 
The lipstick lesbian flag was introduced in 2010 by Natalie McCray; this is a version with the kiss symbol changed. The lipstick lesbian flag has not been widely adopted;[222] some lesbians are against it because it does not include butch lesbians, and because McCray's blog had biphobic, racist, and transphobic comments.[223]

In 2010, same-sex marriage was legalized in the District of Columbia, and Sinjoyla Townsend and Angelisa Young became the first same-sex couple to marry in the District of Columbia.[224] That year same-sex marriage was also legalized in New Hampshire,[225] and Linda Murphy and Donna Swartwout became one of the first same-sex couples to marry in New Hampshire (others including them married the moment same-sex marriage was legalized).[226]

2011

edit

In 2011, Courtney Mitchell and Sarah Welton, both from Colorado, were married in Nepal's first public same-sex female wedding ceremony, although the marriage was not legally recognized in Nepal.[227] Same-sex marriage was legalized in New York state in 2011, and Kitty Lambert and Cheryle Rudd became the first same-sex couple to be married in New York state.[228][229] Also in that year, the Suquamish tribe of Washington state adopted a law proposed by a young lesbian tribal member (Heather Purser) recognizing same-sex marriage.[230][231]

2012

edit

In 2012, a same-sex couple (unknown if they were women or men) wed in December 2012 under Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribal law; the tribe will issue a marriage license to anybody who lives within the tribes' jurisdiction, if at least one person is a tribal member.[232] Also in 2012, Maine, Massachusetts, and Washington became the first states to pass same-sex marriage by popular vote.[233] Later that year Sarah and Emily Cofer became the first same-sex couple to be married in Washington,[234] and Donna Galluzzo and Lisa Gorney became one of the first same-sex couples to be married in Maine.[235]

2013

edit
 
A couple with their children at marriage equality rally, Seattle, WA (2013)

In 2013, in the case Hollingsworth v. Perry, which was brought by a same-sex female couple (Kristin Perry and Sandra Stier) and a same-sex male couple, the Supreme Court said the private sponsors of Proposition 8 did not have legal standing to appeal after the ballot measure was struck down by a federal judge in San Francisco, which made same-sex marriage legal again in California.[236][237] Kristin Perry and Sandra Stier were married shortly afterward, making them the first same-sex couple to be married in California since Proposition 8 was overturned.[238] Also in 2013, Delaware legalized same-sex marriage and state senator Karen Carter Peterson and her partner Vikki Bandy became the first same-sex couple to be married in Delaware.[239] Also in 2013, same-sex marriage was legalized in Minnesota, New Jersey, New Mexico, Rhode Island, and Utah, and by the Confederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation in the state of Washington, the Leech Lake Band of Ojibwe, the Little Traverse Bay Bands of Odawa Indians, the Pokagon Band of Potawatomi Indians, and the Santa Ysabel Tribe.[240][241][242][243][244][245][246][247][248][249] However, several weeks after same-sex marriage was legalized in Utah a stay stopped it.[250] Also in 2013, Hawaii and Illinois legalized same-sex marriage, and Vernita Gray and Patricia Ewert became the first same-sex couple to marry in Illinois.[251][252] U.S. District Judge Thomas Durkin had ordered the Cook County clerk to issue an expedited marriage license to Gray and Ewert before the state's same-sex marriage law took effect in June 2014, because Gray was terminally ill; slightly later that same year, it was declared that all same-sex couples in Illinois where one partner had a terminal illness could marry immediately.[251][253]

2014

edit

In January 2014, same-sex marriage was legalized in Oklahoma, but the ruling was stayed; in 2014, a U.S. appeals court in Denver upheld the lower court ruling that struck down Oklahoma's gay-marriage ban, but that was also stayed.[254] In March 2014, same-sex marriage was legalized in Michigan, and Glenna DeJong and Marsha Caspar became the first same-sex couple married in Michigan; however, later that year the overturning of Michigan's ban on same-sex marriage was indefinitely stayed.[255][256] In May 2014, same-sex marriage was legalized in Arkansas, and Kristin Seaton and Jennifer Rambo became the first same-sex couple married in Arkansas; later that year, the Arkansas Supreme Court suspended same-sex marriages.[257][258] In May 2014, same-sex marriage was legalized in Oregon, and Deanna Geiger and Janine Nelson became the first same-sex couple to marry in Oregon.[259][260] Also in May 2014, same-sex marriage was legalized in Pennsylvania and Wisconsin, but later that year same-sex marriages in Wisconsin were put on hold while the ruling striking down the state's ban on such unions was appealed.[261][262][263] That same month, Idaho's same-sex marriage ban was declared unconstitutional, but another court stayed the ruling.[264][265] Also in 2014, same-sex marriage was legalized in Kentucky, but that ruling was put on hold and so no same-sex marriages were performed at that time.[266] Indiana performed same-sex marriages for three days in 2014, but then the ruling legalizing same-sex marriage in Indiana was likewise put on hold.[267] Similarly, a federal appeals court based in Denver found that states cannot ban gay marriage, but that ruling was put on hold pending an appeal; however, Boulder county clerk Hillary Hall (the first clerk to do so) and clerks in Denver and Pueblo counties issued marriage licenses to same-sex couples in Colorado in spite of the hold.[268][269] Later that year, same-sex marriage was legalized in Colorado, but the ruling was stayed.[270] Colorado's Supreme Court ordered the Denver county clerk to stop issuing marriage licenses to gay couples while the state's ban against the unions was in place.[271] While that decision did not include Boulder and Pueblo, Pueblo county agreed to stop issuing licenses at the request of the Attorney General's office, but Boulder's clerk did not.[268] Later that year a federal judge in Denver ruled Colorado's ban on same-sex marriage was unconstitutional, but the ruling was stayed.[272][273] Later that year the Colorado Supreme Court ordered Boulder County clerk Hillary Hall to stop issuing same-sex marriage licenses.[274]

 
Two women at the Capital Pride Parade, Washington, DC (2014)

Also in 2014, Monroe County, Florida, legalized same-sex marriages, but the ruling was stayed.[275] Later that year Miami-Dade Circuit Judge Sarah Zabel legalized same-sex marriage in Florida, but the ruling was stayed.[276] Shortly afterward, two more judges legalized same-sex marriage in Florida, but their rulings were stayed.[277][278] Toward the end of July 2014, the Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals (covering Maryland, Virginia, and the Carolinas) ruled against Virginia's gay marriage ban, but the ruling was stayed.[279][280] However, in August 2014 a state court in Kingston, Tennessee, became the first to uphold a state ban on gay marriage since the Supreme Court's decision in 2013 in United States v. Windsor.[281] Also, in September 2014 a federal judge upheld Louisiana's ban on same-sex marriages, which was the first such loss for LGBTQ rights in federal court since the Supreme Court's decision in 2013 in United States v. Windsor.[282] But slightly later the 7th Circuit Court of Appeals legalized same-sex marriage in Indiana and Wisconsin, although the decision did not take effect then.[283] Also, Louisiana legalized same-sex marriage in September 2014, but the ruling did not take effect then.[284][285] In October 2014, the Supreme Court declined to hear the seven cases regarding same-sex marriage in Indiana, Oklahoma, Utah, Virginia, and Wisconsin, which meant lower court decisions ruling in favor of same-sex marriage stood, and therefore same-sex marriage then became legal in those states.[286]

Shortly later that month, the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals in San Francisco declared same-sex marriage legal in Idaho and Nevada, but Supreme Court Justice Anthony Kennedy temporarily blocked that ruling for Idaho.[287][288] Shortly later a private group that had led the legal fight to defend the voter-approved ban on same-sex marriage withdrew its pending appeal for a stay with the Supreme Court, and thus same-sex marriage became legal in Nevada.[289] Nevada state Sen. Kelvin Atkinson and Sherwood Howard were the first same-sex couple to marry in Nevada.[289] Also in October 2014, a federal judge legalized same-sex marriage in North Carolina; although his federal judicial district only covers the western third of the state, North Carolina Attorney General Roy Cooper said that the federal ruling applied statewide.[290] Also that month Attorney General Patrick Morrisey announced he would no longer fight a challenge to West Virginia's same-sex marriage ban, and thus same-sex marriage was legalized in West Virginia.[291][292] Same-sex marriage was also legalized in Alaska, Arizona, Colorado, Idaho, and Wyoming that month.[293][294][295][296][297] In November 2014, same-sex marriage was legalized in Kansas, but Supreme Court Justice Sonia Sotomayor issued an order temporarily blocking it.[298] The order was lifted later that month; although Kansas Attorney General Derek Schmidt said that a separate lawsuit he filed with the state Supreme Court should prevent gay marriage in all but the two counties that were home to cases covered in the ruling from the nation's capital (Douglas and Sedgwick counties) couples beyond Douglas and Sedgwick counties picked up marriage licenses also.[299][300] Later in November 2014 the Kansas Supreme Court ruled that Johnson County could issue marriage licenses to same-sex couples and left it to the federal courts to determine whether a Kansas ban on same-sex marriage violated the U.S. Constitution.[301] Derek Schmidt then asked the 10th Circuit Court of Appeals for an en banc hearing on the Kansas same-sex marriage ban, but the 10th Circuit refused.[302] Also in November 2014, same-sex marriage was legalized in Montana and South Carolina, although the ruling in South Carolina was stayed until later that month.[303][304][305] Kayla Bennett and Kristin Anderson were the first same-sex couple to be married in South Carolina.[306] That same month, same-sex marriage was legalized in Arkansas and Mississippi, but the rulings were stayed.[307] Also in November 2014, St. Louis Circuit Judge Rex Burlison ruled that Missourians in same sex relationships have the right to marry, and St. Louis County began complying with that ruling, as shortly after Jackson County also did.[308][309] But the judge who issued the ruling striking down Missouri's same-sex marriage ban stayed its order directing Jackson County to issue licenses to same-sex couples.[310] Also in November 2014, the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals upheld bans on same-sex marriage in Kentucky, Ohio, Tennessee, and Michigan, marking the first time since the Supreme Court's rulings in Windsor v. U.S. and Hollingsworth v. Perry (both of which were in favor of same-sex marriage) that any federal appeals court upheld a state's voter-approved ban on same-sex marriage.[311]

2015

edit
 
Pink lesbian flag with colors copied from the lipstick lesbian flag.

In January 2015, U.S. District Judge Robert Hinkle in Tallahassee ruled that all clerks in the state were required under the Constitution to issue marriage licenses to all same-sex couples.[312] On January 5, 2015, same-sex marriage was legalized in Miami-Dade County when Judge Sarah Zabel lifted the legal stay on her July decision legalizing same-sex marriage in Florida, and Karla Arguello and Catherina Pareto became the first same-sex couple married in Florida.[313][314] On January 6, 2015 same-sex marriage was legalized and began throughout Florida.[314] Also in January 2015, same-sex marriage was legalized in South Dakota, but the ruling was stayed.[315] Also that month, same-sex marriage was legalized in two separate rulings in Alabama, but both rulings were stayed.[316][317][318] However, in February 2015 same-sex marriage was legalized in Alabama after the Supreme Court refused Alabama's attorney general's request to keep same-sex marriages on hold until the Supreme Court ruled whether laws banning them are constitutional.[319] But the chief justice of the Alabama Supreme Court, Roy Moore, wrote in his own order later that the latest ruling legalizing same-sex marriage in Alabama did not apply to the state's probate judges and directed them not to comply.[320] The judge who issued that latest ruling (Judge Callie V. S. Granade) then ruled that the local probate judge (Judge Don Davis of Mobile County) could not refuse to issue marriage licenses to same-sex couples, after which Davis began issuing licenses to same-sex couples, as did many counties in Alabama.[320][321] On February 17, 2015, a Texas probate judge ruled that the state's ban on same-sex marriage was unconstitutional, as part of an estate battle.[322] Later that month Sarah Goodfriend and Suzanne Bryant became the first same-sex couple married in Texas, after their marriage license was issued in response to a district judge's order in Travis County because one of the women had been diagnosed with ovarian cancer.[323] However, the clerk's office noted that "[a]ny additional licenses issued to same sex couples also must be court ordered," and the Texas Supreme Court issued an emergency stay that same afternoon they were married.[323] Also in February 2015, the Central Council of Tlingit and Haida Indian Tribes of Alaska announced its courts were authorized to allow the performance of same-sex marriages.[324][325] In March 2015, same-sex marriage was legalized in Nebraska, but that was stayed until March 9 to give state officials time to appeal the ruling and ask for an extension of the stay, and then the Eighth Circuit granted the state's request, which placed same-sex marriage in Nebraska on hold until the federal appeals court ruled on Nebraska's marriage ban.[326][327] Also in March 2015, the Alabama supreme court ordered Alabama's probate judges to stop issuing marriage licenses to same-sex couples, stating that a previous federal ruling that same-sex marriage bans violate the US constitution did not preclude them from following state law, which defined marriage as between a man and a woman.[328]

In April 2015 Guam's attorney general directed officials to begin processing marriage license applications from same-sex couples, but the governor said he wanted to study the issue further, and the public health director said he wouldn't accept the applications.[329][330] The attorney general's direction came after Loretta M. Pangelinan and Kathleen M. Aguero sued in U.S. District Court in Guam (also in April 2015) after their marriage application was refused.[330] In May 2015, a federal judge ruled that same-sex marriage was legal in all Alabama counties, but placed her decision on hold until the Supreme Court issued a ruling on same-sex marriage.[331] On June 5, 2015, a judge issued a ruling which struck down Guam's statutory ban on same-sex marriage. The ruling was issued immediately after the court hearing proceedings and went into effect on 8 am Tuesday June 9. Same-sex marriages became performable and recognised in the U.S. territory from that date. Attorneys representing the government of Guam had said in a May 18 court filing that "should a court strike current Guam law, they would respect and follow such a decision".[332] On June 9, 2015, Loretta M. Pangelinan, 28, and Kathleen M. Aguero, 29, were the first of several same-sex couples to receive a marriage license in the territory's capital, Hagåtña.[333] The first couple to marry was Deasia Johnson of Killeen, Texas and Nikki Dismuke of New Orleans, who married each other in a brief ceremony in the office of Public Health Director James Gillan on the morning on June 9, 2015, the day the island territory became the United States' first overseas territory to recognize same-sex marriage.[334]

Finally, on June 26, 2015, the Supreme Court ruled by a 5-to-4 vote in Obergefell v. Hodges that the Constitution guarantees a right to same-sex marriage, legalizing it throughout the United States.[335] Mary Bonauto, herself a lesbian, was the attorney for the plaintiffs arguing in favor of same-sex marriage.[336][337] Organizations have estimated that there are approximately twenty million lesbian and gay Americans.[338]

edit
 
Orange-pink lesbian flag derived from the pink lesbian flag, circulated on social media in 2018.
 
Five-stripes variant of orange-pink lesbian flag.

Aside from the legalization of same-sex marriage, there were seven significant legal victories for lesbians from the year 2000 until 2020. In 2009, due to the Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act being signed into law, the definition of federal hate crime was expanded to include those violent crimes in which the victim is selected due to their sexual orientation; previously federal hate crimes were defined as only those violent crimes where the victim is selected due to their race, color, religion, or national origin.[339] In 2011, the "Don't Ask Don't Tell" policy was ended, allowing lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals in the U.S. military to be open about their sexuality.[340][341][342] The FAIR Education Act (Senate Bill 48) became law in California in 2011; this law requires the inclusion of the political, economic, and social contributions of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people and people with disabilities in California's educational textbooks and the social studies curricula in California public schools. In 2013, in the case United States v. Windsor, brought by lesbian Edie Windsor and argued by lesbian attorney Roberta Kaplan, the Supreme Court struck down Section 3 of the federal Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA), which had denied federal benefits to same-sex couples who were legally married in their states.[343][344][345][346][347] Also, in 2014, President Obama signed Executive Order 13672 adding both "sexual orientation" and "gender identity" to the categories protected against discrimination in employment and hiring on the part of federal government contractors and sub-contractors.[348] In 2015, an important victory came when the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission concluded that Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 does not allow sexual orientation discrimination in employment because it is a form of sex discrimination.[349][350] In 2017, the Supreme Court ruled in Pavan v. Smith that in regard to the issuing of birth certificates, no state can treat same-sex couples differently than heterosexual ones; the case was brought by two same-sex female couples.[351][352][353]

Bostock v. Clayton County, 590 U.S. ___ (2020), was a landmark Supreme Court case in which the Court held that Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 protects employees against discrimination because of their sexual orientation or gender identity.[354]

Setbacks regarding law

edit

In 2017, the Department of Justice filed an amicus brief in the 2nd U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals making the argument that Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 does not prohibit discrimination against employees who are gay or bisexual.[355]

Lesbians in politics and business

edit
 
Tammy Baldwin, official 113th Congress photo portrait

In 2012, Tammy Baldwin became the first openly lesbian or gay senator in American history.[356] Another first for lesbians in politics came that year when the first lesbian Super PAC, LPAC, was founded by lesbian Urvashi Vaid to represent the interests of lesbians in the United States, and to campaign on LGBT and women's rights issues.[357][358][359][360][361]

In 2015 Aisha Moodie-Mills became the new president and CEO of the Victory Fund, which made her the first woman, first black woman, first lesbian, and first black lesbian to become the head of a national leading LGBTQ organization.[362][363]

Lesbian representation in media

edit

The turn of the century saw a gradual rise in mainstream lesbian representation. In Season 4 of Buffy the Vampire Slayer (1997–2003), the relationship between Willow Rosenberg and Tara Maclay's became one of the first prominent portrayals of a lesbian couple on American primetime television.[364][365] The series also featured the first lesbian sex scene in broadcast TV history.[366]

Showtime's The L Word (2004-2009) was the first series to feature a significant number of lesbian characters as its leads and to show diverse portrayals of lesbian identity. It is considered groundbreaking for its positive and multi-faceted portrayal of queer community.[367][368] Netflix's Orange is the New Black (2013-2019) similarly portrayed several lesbian characters and relationships and confronted various lesbian stereotypes throughout its plot lines.

In 2016, The CW's series The 100 sparked outrage amongst fans after it killed off one of its lead characters Lexa, a powerful leader and established lesbian, soon after confirming her relationship with protagonist Clarke Griffin. For many, Lexa's death was indicative of a wider pattern of lesbian characters dying contributing to the "Bury Your Gays" trope.[369][370] GLAAD's annual report on LGBT representation called 2016 "a very deadly year for queer female characters."[371]

A number of animated shows, many geared towards a younger audience, have been praised for their portrayals of lesbian relationships. In 2014, The Legend of Korra ended with a final shot that confirms a romantic relationship between Asami and Korra, pushing boundaries for representation in children's television.[372] She-Ra and the Princesses of Power (2018) similarly ends with Catra and Adora confessing their mutual love and sharing an on-screen kiss.[373][374]

DC Comics confirmed in 2020 that the modern Batwoman is an out lesbian.[375]

GLAAD reports that lesbian characters made up 40% of LGBT characters on broadcast television from 2021 to 2022.[376]

Orlando shootings

edit

On June 11, 2016, Pulse, a gay nightclub in Orlando, Florida, was hosting Latin Night, a weekly Saturday-night event drawing a primarily Hispanic crowd.[377][378] In what was the deadliest mass shooting and the worst terror attack since 9/11 to occur in the United States, a mass shooting then occurred which killed 50 people, including the shooter, and injured 53.[379][380][381][382][383] ISIL's Amaq News Agency claimed that the assault, "... was carried out by an Islamic State fighter".[384][385] The FBI identified the deceased gunman as Omar Mir Seddique Mateen, a 29-year-old American citizen born in New York to Afghani parents, and living in Port St. Lucie, Florida. Mateen called 9-1-1 during the attack and pledged allegiance to ISIL.[385]

Notable American lesbians

edit
 
Wanda Sykes at 2010 GLAAD Media Awards
 
Rachel Maddow (2008)

See also

edit

References

edit
  1. ^ a b Zimmerman, Bonnie, ed. (2000). "Symbols, Christy Stevens". Lesbian Histories and Cultures: An Encyclopedia (1st ed.). Garland Publishing. p. 748. ISBN 0-8153-1920-7.
  2. ^ a b Stearn, William T. (17 August 1961). "The Male and Female Symbols of Biology". New Scientist. 11 (248): 412–413. LCCN 59030638.
  3. ^ Myers, JoAnne (2003). Historical Dictionary of the Lesbian Liberation Movement: Still the Rage (1st ed.). Lanham, Maryland: The Scarecrow Press. p. 156. ISBN 978-0810845060.
  4. ^ Mays, Dorothy A. (2004). Women in early America: struggle, survival, and freedom in a new world. ABC-CLIO. p. 232. ISBN 1-85109-429-6.
  5. ^ Whitmore, William Henry (February 1995). The Colonial Laws of Massachusetts: Reprinted from the Edition of 1660, With the Supplements to 1672 : Containing Also, the Body of Liberties of. Fred B. Rothman &. ISBN 0-8377-2053-2.
  6. ^ Foster, Thomas (2007). Long Before Stonewall: Histories of Same-Sex Sexuality in Early America. New York University Press.
  7. ^ "Amendment VIII: Thomas Jefferson, A Bill for Proportioning Crimes and Punishments". Press-pubs.uchicago.edu. Retrieved April 2, 2021.
  8. ^ Abramson, HA (1980). "The historical and cultural spectra of homosexuality and their relationship to the fear of being a lesbian". The Journal of Asthma Research. 17 (4): 177–88. doi:10.3109/02770908009105669. PMID 7021523.
  9. ^ "Timeline of Oppression". Geneseo.edu. 1969-06-27. Archived from the original on 2013-12-07. Retrieved 2013-12-03.
  10. ^ a b Borris, Kenneth (December 19, 2003). Same-sex desire in the English Renaissance: a sourcebook of texts, 1470–1650. Taylor & Frances. p. 113. ISBN 0-8153-3626-8. Retrieved April 2, 2021.
  11. ^ "Legal case: Norman, Hammon; Plymouth, March 6, 1649". Out History. Archived from the original on October 4, 2011.
  12. ^ Bullough, Vern; Bullough, Bonnie (1977). "Lesbianism in the 1920s and 1930s: A Newfound Study". Signs. 2 (4): 895–904. doi:10.1086/493419. PMID 21213641. S2CID 145652567.
  13. ^ Murphy, Timothy F. (2000). Reader's guide to lesbian and gay studies. Taylor & Frances. p. 93. ISBN 1579581420. Retrieved April 2, 2021.
  14. ^ Moore, Clive (2001). Sunshine and rainbows: the development of gay and lesbian culture in Queensland. Univ. of Queensland Press. p. 17. ISBN 0702232084.
  15. ^ "Sarah Orne Jewett". Harvard Square Library. Archived from the original on August 19, 2010. Retrieved April 2, 2021.
  16. ^ Brady, Jessica Bombasaro (2009). "Honoring Jane Addams a WILPF commitment to gay rights". Peace and Freedom. 69 (1): 20–21.
  17. ^ Rapp, Linda (2012). "Cushman, Charlotte (1816-1876)" (PDF). GLBTQ. Retrieved April 2, 2021.
  18. ^ Corinne, Tree A (2002). "Stebbins, Emma (1815-1882)" (PDF). GLBTQ. Retrieved April 2, 2021.
  19. ^ Brockwell, Gillian (2019-06-20). "A gay first lady? Yes, we've already had one, and here are her love letters". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2019-06-21.
  20. ^ Lillian Faderman, Odd Girls and Twilight Lovers: A History of Lesbian Life in Twentieth-Century America, Penguin Books Ltd, 1991, page 32
  21. ^ Solly, Meilan (2019-09-21). "New Book Chronicles First Lady Rose Cleveland's Love Affair With Evangeline Simpson Whipple". Smithsonian. Retrieved 2019-06-21.
  22. ^ a b Katz, Jonathan Ned (1992). Gay American History: Lesbians and Gay Men in the U.S.A. (2nd ed.). New York: Meridian Books. p. 720. ISBN 0-452-01092-6.
  23. ^ O'Hare, Kate Richards (1923). "In prison". New York: A.A. Knopf. Archived from the original on 2006-11-06. Retrieved 2006-12-08.
  24. ^ Bullough, Bonnie; Bullough, Vern (Summer 1977). "Lesbianism in the 1920s and 1930s: A Newfound Study". Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society. 2 (4). University of Chicago: 895–904. doi:10.1086/493419. JSTOR 3173219. PMID 21213641. S2CID 145652567.
  25. ^ Wood, Stacy; Cubé, Caroline. "Mildred Berryman papers 1918-1990". oac.cdlib.org. University of California, Los Angeles.
  26. ^ a b c Quinn, D. Michael (1996). Same-Sex Dynamics among Nineteenth-Century Americans. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0252022050.
  27. ^ Anderson, J. Seth (29 May 2017). LGBT Salt Lake: Images of Modern America. Arcadia Publishing. p. 20. ISBN 9781467125857.
  28. ^ Gallo, Marci M. (28 September 2007). Different Daughters: A History of the Daughters of Bilitis and the Rise of the Lesbian Rights Movement. Seal Press. ISBN 978-1580052528. Unknown to them at the time was the work decades earlier of a pioneering lesbian researcher, Mildred (Berry) Berryman. Berryman and her life partner, Ruth ...
  29. ^ Bullough, Vern L. (20 November 2002). "Berry Berryman (1901–1972)". Before Stonewall: Activists for Gay and Lesbian Rights in Historical Context. New York City: Harrington Park Press. ISBN 1560231939.
  30. ^ Wilcox, Melissa M. (2006). "Same-Sex Eroticism and Gender Fluidity in New and Alternative Religions" (PDF). Introduction to New and Alternative Religions in America: Volume 1: History and Controversies (1 ed.). Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. p. 249. ISBN 0275987124. Archived from the original on 7 November 2017. Retrieved 15 November 2018.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  31. ^ Jordan, Sara (March 1997). "Lesbian Mormon History". affirmation.org. Affirmation: Gay & Lesbian Mormons. Archived from the original on 2 February 2014.
  32. ^ Jennings, Duane E. "'Same-Sex Dynamics Among Nineteenth Century Americans: A Mormon Example' Book Review". affirmation.org. Affirmation: LGBT Mormons, Families & Friends. Archived from the original on 7 November 2017. Retrieved 7 November 2017.
  33. ^ Boag, Peter (October 2002). "Departing from Deviance: A History of Homosexual Rights and Emancipatory Science in America (review)". Journal of the History of Sexuality. 11 (4): 693. doi:10.1353/sex.2003.0030. S2CID 142740704.
  34. ^ Berkin, Carol; Miller, Christopher; Cherny, Robert; Gormly, James (2010). Making America: A History of the United States, Volume II: Since 1865 (Brief Fifth ed.). Boston, MA: Wadsworth Publishing. p. 545. ISBN 978-0618471416.
  35. ^ Gattuso, Reina (September 3, 2019). "The Founder of America's Earliest Lesbian Bar Was Deported for Obscenity". Atlas Obscura.
  36. ^ Griffin, Gabriele (June 16, 2004). Who's who in lesbian and gay writing. Taylor & Francis. p. 190. ISBN 0-415-15984-9. Retrieved April 2, 2021.
  37. ^ Stone, Martha E. (2002). "Who were Miss Furr and Miss Skeene?". The Gay & Lesbian Review Worldwide. Archived from the original on 2015-11-06.
  38. ^ Erika Holst (March 13, 2014). "Crossing boundaries: Springfield's other famous artist, Ethel Mars". Illinois Times. Archived from the original on February 5, 2017. Retrieved February 3, 2017.
  39. ^ Mellow, James R. (December 1968). "The Stein Salon Was The First Museum of Modern Art; To a Name-Dropper the Stein Salon was Heaven". The New York Times. Retrieved April 2, 2021.
  40. ^ Wickes, George (1976). The Amazon of Letters. New York: Putnam. ISBN 0-399-11864-0.
  41. ^ O'Rourke, Rebecca (1989). Reflecting on The well of loneliness. Routledge. p. 121. ISBN 0415018412.
  42. ^ "10 most hated books". Free Online Library. June 24, 1997. Retrieved April 2, 2021.
  43. ^ a b c d e Taylor, "I Made Up My Mind", passim.
  44. ^ Green, William Crawford (July 2, 2024). "Hicklin Test". Free Speech Center. Archived from the original on September 23, 2023. Retrieved August 10, 2024.
  45. ^ Barbas, Samantha (June 22, 2021). "How the banning of Ulysses led to "the grandest obscenity case in the history of law and literature"". Crime Reads. Retrieved August 10, 2024.
  46. ^ "Customs Seeks to Bar 'Well of Loneliness'". New York Times. 16 May 1929. p. 18.
  47. ^ "'Well Of Loneliness' Held Not Offensive". New York Times. 27 July 1929. p. 11.
  48. ^ a b "Diana Frederics: Diana, A Strange Autobiography, 1939". Out History. Archived from the original on July 27, 2011. Retrieved April 2, 2021.
  49. ^ a b c Gallo, p. 67
  50. ^ a b "History Detectives: nvestigations – Diana". PBS. Retrieved April 2, 2021.
  51. ^ Robert B. Marks Ridinger (2004). Speaking for our lives: historic speeches and rhetoric for gay and lesbian rights (1892–2000). Psychology Press. p. 705. ISBN 1560231750. Retrieved April 2, 2021.
  52. ^ a b "Lost Angeles". GLBTQ. Archived from the original on June 29, 2011. Retrieved April 2, 2021.
  53. ^ Patricia Juliana Smith (1999). The queer sixties. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-92168-6. Retrieved April 2, 2021.
  54. ^ "A Brief History of Film Censorship in the USA". National Coalition Against Censorship. December 1, 2006. Archived from the original on November 10, 2010. Retrieved January 7, 2012.
  55. ^ a b "Obama ends ban on openly gay military service". Dawn.Com. Associated Press. 2011-07-23. Retrieved 2012-11-06.
  56. ^ a b Frances Ann Day Lesbian and gay voices: an annotated bibliography and guide to literature for children and young adults, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2000 ISBN 0313311625 p. 116
  57. ^ a b Craig A. Rimmerman Gay rights, military wrongs: political perspectives on lesbians and gays in the military, Garland Pub., 1996 ISBN 0815325800 p. 76
  58. ^ Murdoch and Price, p. 47
  59. ^ a b Spring Fire (Lesbian Pulp Fiction). ISBN 9781573441872.
  60. ^ "Lesbian Pulp Fiction Collection at Mount Saint Vincent University". Mount Saint Vincent University. Retrieved April 2, 2021.
  61. ^ Highsmith, Patricia (aka Claire Morgan) (1952). The Price of Salt. Internet Archive. OL 6111394M.
  62. ^ Castle, Terry (May 23, 2006). "Pulp Valentine". Slate. Retrieved 30 November 2010.
  63. ^ Smith, Nathan (November 20, 2015). "Gay Syllabus: The Talented Patricia Highsmith". Out Magazine. Retrieved 14 October 2019.
  64. ^ Meaker, Marijane (2003). "One". Highsmith: A Romance of the 1950s (1st ed.). Cleis Press. p. 1. ISBN 1573441716. [The Price of Salt ] was for many years the only lesbian novel, in either hard or soft cover, with a happy ending.
  65. ^ Reis, Elizabeth (2012). American Sexual Histories (2nd ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 270–273. ISBN 978-1-4443-3929-1.
  66. ^ a b Varnell, Paul. "More Gays than Lesbians". Independent Gay Forum. Archived from the original on July 24, 2010.
  67. ^ Howard, Josh (April 27, 2012). "April 27, 1953: For LGBT Americans, a Day That Lives in Infamy". Huffpost. Retrieved April 2, 2021.
  68. ^ a b Valelly, Rick (October 1, 2018). "How Gay Rights Activists Remade the Federal Government". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on October 20, 2020. Retrieved April 2, 2021.
  69. ^ a b "Lesbian activist who fought for marriage rights dies". CNN.com. 2008-08-27. Retrieved 2017-06-27.
  70. ^ a b c d e "Daughters of Bilitis". GLBTQ. Archived from the original on June 29, 2011. Retrieved April 2, 2021.
  71. ^ Capsuto, Steven (2000). Alternate Channels: The Uncensored Story of Gay and Lesbian Images on Radio and Television, pg. 43. Ballantine Books. ISBN 0-345-41243-5.
  72. ^ Riordan, Kevin (Fall 2001)
  73. ^ a b c "Kay Lahusen". Ncourageu.org. Retrieved 2013-12-03.
  74. ^ Moffitt, Evan (31 May 2015). "10 Years Before Stonewall, There Was the Cooper's Donuts Riot". Out Magazine. Here Media Inc. Retrieved 30 June 2017.
  75. ^ a b c "LGBT Civil Rights". University of Wisconsin Madison. Archived from the original on June 21, 2010. Retrieved August 12, 2024.
  76. ^ a b "Interview". Gay Today. Retrieved 2012-11-06.
  77. ^ "Gittings, Barbara (1932-2007)". GLBTQ. Archived from the original on July 8, 2010. Retrieved April 2, 2021.
  78. ^ "Homosexuals Stage Protest in Capital." New York Times: May 30, 1965. p. 42; retrieved October 16, 2007.
  79. ^ "Barbara Gittings". Archived from the original on 2007-09-26. Glbt History Month; October 14, 2006; retrieved November 4, 2007.
  80. ^ "Archive of Influential Gay Rights Activists Barbara Gittings and Kay Tobin Lahusen acquired by The New York Public Library". (Press Release). New York Public Library; retrieved November 4, 2007.
  81. ^ Koedt, Anne. "Lesbianism and Feminism". Archived from the original on 2015-04-29.
  82. ^ Duberman, Martin (1993). Stonewall, Penguin Books. ISBN 0-525-93602-5, p. 196.
  83. ^ Chu, Grace (2010-07-26). "An interview with lesbian Stonewall veteran Stormé DeLarverie | People, Celebrities, Actresses & Profiles Of Gay, Lesbian & Bisexual Women In Movies, TV Shows & Music". AfterEllen.com. Retrieved 2010-08-01.
  84. ^ Accounts of people who witnessed the scene, including letters and news reports of the woman who fought with police, conflicted. Where witnesses claim one woman who fought her treatment at the hands of the police caused the crowd to become angry, some also remembered several "butch lesbians" had begun to fight back while still in the bar. At least one was already bleeding when taken out of the bar (Carter, David (2004). Stonewall: The Riots that Sparked the Gay Revolution, St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-34269-1, pp. 152–153). Craig Rodwell (in Duberman, p. 197) claims the arrest of the woman was not the primary event that triggered the violence, but one of several simultaneous occurrences: "there was just ... a flash of group—of mass—anger."
  85. ^ Carter, p. 152.
  86. ^ Carter, p. 151.
  87. ^ Duberman, Martin (1993). Stonewall. Dutton. ISBN 0-525-93602-5.
  88. ^ D'Emilio, John (1983). Sexual politics, sexual communities : the making of a homosexual minority in the United States 1940-1970. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-14265-5.
  89. ^ Gallo, Marcia (2006). Different daughters : a history of the Daughters of Bilitis and the rise of the Lesbian rights movement. New York: Carroll and Graf. ISBN 0-7867-1634-7.
  90. ^ Love, Barbara J. Feminists Who Changed America, 1963-1975
  91. ^ Zimmerman, Bonnie (2000). Lesbian histories and cultures: an encyclopedia. Garland Pub. p. 134. ISBN 0815319207. Retrieved August 12, 2024.
  92. ^ Vicki Lynn Eaklor (2008). Queer America: a GLBT history of the 20th century. p. 145. ISBN 978-0313337499. Retrieved August 12, 2024.
  93. ^ a b Flora Davis Moving the mountain: the women's movement in America since 1960, University of Illinois Press, 1999 ISBN 0-252-06782-7 p. 264
  94. ^ Cheshire Calhoun Feminism, the Family, and the Politics of the Closet: Lesbian and Gay Displacement, Oxford University Press, 2003 ISBN 0-19-925766-3 p. 27
  95. ^ Carolyn Zerbe Enns Feminist theories and feminist psychotherapies: origins, themes, and diversity, Routledge, 2004 ISBN 078901808X p. 105
  96. ^ Radicalesbians (1997), "The woman identified woman", in Nicholson, Linda (ed.), The second wave: a reader in feminist theory, New York: Routledge, pp. 153–157, ISBN 9780415917612.
  97. ^ a b c "Leading the Fight". National Organization for Women. Archived from the original on April 24, 2014. Retrieved August 12, 2024.
  98. ^ a b Friedan, Betty (2001). Life So Far: A Memoir. N.Y.: Simon & Schuster (Touchstone Book). p. 221. ISBN 0-7432-0024-1.
  99. ^ Friedan, Betty. Life So Far, op. cit. Page 222.
  100. ^ Friedan, Betty. Life So Far, op. cit. Pp. 248–249.
  101. ^ Friedan, Betty. Life So Far, op. cit. Page 223.
  102. ^ Friedan, Betty. Life So Far, op. cit. Page 295.
  103. ^ Barbara J. Love (22 September 2006). Feminists Who Changed America, 1963-1975. University of Illinois Press. pp. 161–. ISBN 978-0-252-09747-8.
  104. ^ "Plan of Action". National Women's Conference. 1977. Archived from the original on May 18, 2014. Retrieved August 12, 2024.
  105. ^ Belge, Kathy. "Del Martin". About. Archived from the original on 2007-02-13. Retrieved 2007-02-11.
  106. ^ Audrey Bilger; Michele Kort (6 March 2012). Here Come the Brides!: Reflections on Lesbian Love and Marriage. Da Capo Press. pp. 438–. ISBN 978-1-58005-450-8.
  107. ^ Rich, A. (1980). Compulsory Heterosexuality and Lesbian Existence. Signs, 5, 631–660.
  108. ^ Mark Blasius, Shane Phelan We are everywhere: a historical sourcebook in gay and lesbian politics, Routledge, 1997 ISBN 0-415-90859-0 p. 352
  109. ^ Vern L. Bullough Before Stonewall: activists for gay and lesbian rights in historical context, Routledge, 2002 ISBN 1-56023-193-9 p. 160
  110. ^ a b c Dudley Clendinen, Adam Nagourney Out for Good: The Struggle to Build a Gay Rights Movement in America, Simon & Schuster, 2001 ISBN 0684867435, p. 104
  111. ^ Bonnie Zimmerman Lesbian histories and cultures: an encyclopedia Garland Pub., 2000 ISBN 0-8153-1920-7, p. 322
  112. ^ Penny A. Weiss, Marilyn Friedman Feminism and community, Temple University Press, 1995 ISBN 1566392772 p. 131
  113. ^ By WILLIAM GRIMESSEPT. 21, 2010 (2010-09-21). "Jill Johnston, Avant-Garde Cultural Critic, Dies at 81 - The New York Times". The New York Times. Retrieved 2017-06-27.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  114. ^ McCown, Olivia (October 16, 2021). "LGBTQ in Nebraska: a glimpse of the past, a look into the future". Nebraska News Service.
  115. ^ a b c Gallo, p. 176
  116. ^ a b Nancy D. Polikoff Beyond straight and gay marriage: valuing all families under the law, Beacon Press, 2008 ISBN 0807044326 p. 38
  117. ^ "Death of a Gay Rights Pioneer". The Washington Post. 2007-02-24.
  118. ^ Kershaw, Sarah (January 30, 2009). "My Sister's Keeper". The New York Times. Retrieved June 30, 2017.
  119. ^ King, Lori (August 16, 2015). "Womyn's Rite: Annual Michigan Fest roared for 40 years". The Blade. Retrieved June 30, 2017.
  120. ^ "Gay Politicians". eQualityGiving. Archived from the original on August 5, 2023. Retrieved August 12, 2024.
  121. ^ a b "Noble, Elaine (b. 1944)". GLBTQ. Archived from the original on October 30, 2007. Retrieved April 2, 2021.
  122. ^ "Elected Officials". GLBTQ. Archived from the original on October 22, 2009.
  123. ^ Keith, Christie (November 24, 2008). "The Lesbian in "Milk": Alison Pill as Anne Kronenberg". After Ellen. Archived from the original on March 2, 2009. Retrieved August 12, 2024.
  124. ^ "Harvey Milk: the mayor of Castro Street rides again". Tim Teeman. January 15, 2009. Archived from the original on October 16, 2013. Retrieved August 6, 2024.
  125. ^ The Resurrection of Harvey Milk | People Archived January 3, 2010, at the Wayback Machine. The Advocate. Retrieved on 2010-11-30.
  126. ^ "Guide to the Sally Miller Gearhart Papers 1956–1999". Nwda-db.wsulibs.wsu.edu. Retrieved 2013-12-03.
  127. ^ Advocate Archives: 20 years ago - Briggs initiative defeated. - Free Online Library. Thefreelibrary.com. Retrieved on 2010-11-30.
  128. ^ Guide to the Sally Miller Gearhart Papers 1956-1999 Archived March 24, 2012, at the Wayback Machine. Nwda-db.wsulibs.wsu.edu. Retrieved on 2010-11-30.
  129. ^ Ghaziani, Amin. 2008. "The Dividends of Dissent: How Conflict and Culture Work in Lesbian and Gay Marches on Washington". The University of Chicago Press.
  130. ^ Thomas, Jo (October 15, 1979). "Estimated 75,000 persons parade through Washington, DC, in homosexual rights march. Urge passage of legislation to protect rights of homosexuals". New York Times Abstracts. p. 14.
  131. ^ Ridinger, Robert B. Marks. Speaking for Our Lives: Historic Speeches and Rhetoric for Gay and Lesbian
  132. ^ Pasulka, Nicole (August 17, 2015). "The History of Lesbian Bars". Vice. Retrieved 27 December 2019.
  133. ^ Flanagan, Michael (March 18, 2018). "Café back in the day". Bay Area Reporter. Retrieved 27 December 2019.
  134. ^ Anderson, Scott P. (May 3, 1979). "Cop Charged in Lesbian Bar Fracas" (PDF). The Houston Advocate. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 15, 2016. Retrieved August 14, 2024.
  135. ^ Grabowicz, Paul (May 12, 1979). "Anti-Gay Sentiments Turn Violent in Aftermath of Moscone-Milk Killings". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on September 16, 2016. Retrieved August 14, 2024.
  136. ^ "San Francisco Ballot Propositions Database". San Francisco Public Library. Archived from the original on March 29, 2020. Retrieved August 14, 2024.
  137. ^ "San Francisco may vote out vice squad". Lakeland Ledger. October 29, 1979. Archived from the original on August 14, 2024. Retrieved August 14, 2024.
  138. ^ John D'Emilio, Making Trouble: Essays on Gay History, Politics, and the University, Routledge, Feb 4, 2014, p. 92
  139. ^ Wayne R. Dynes, History of Homosexuality in Europe and America, Taylor & Francis, 1992 p. 99
  140. ^ Randy Shilts, The Mayor of Castro Street: The Life and Times of Harvey Milk, Macmillan, Oct 14, 2008 p. 306
  141. ^ Josh Sides, Erotic City: Sexual Revolutions and the Making of Modern San Francisco, Oxford University Press, Oct 19, 2009, p.165
  142. ^ Del Martin, Phyllis Lyon, Lesbian/woman, Bantam Books, 1983, p. 317
  143. ^ a b c d Stryker, Susan (2008). Transgender History. Seal Press. pp. 102–104. ISBN 9781580052245.
  144. ^ "1973: West Coast TERFs". The Terfs. October 12, 2013.
  145. ^ Goldberg, Michelle (4 August 2014). "What Is a Woman? The dispute between radical feminism and transgender ideology". New Yorker Magazine. Retrieved 5 August 2014.
  146. ^ "1973: West Coast TERFs". October 12, 2013.
  147. ^ Erickson-Schroth, Laura (2014). Trans Bodies, Trans Selves: A Resource for the Transgender Community. Oxford University Press. p. 518. ISBN 9780199325375.
  148. ^ a b c Clendinen, Dudley; Nagourney, Adam (2013). Out For Good: The Struggle to Build a Gay Rights Movement in America. Simon and Schuster. pp. 164–167. ISBN 9781476740713.
  149. ^ Robin Morgan, "Keynote Address" Lesbian Tide. May/Jun73, Vol. 2 Issue 10/11, p30-34 (quote p 32); additional coverage in Pichulina Hampi, Advocate, May 9, 1973, issue 11, p. 4
  150. ^ Meyerowitz, Joanne J. (2009). How Sex Changed: A History of Transsexuality in the United States. Harvard University Press. pp. 259–260. ISBN 978-0-674-04096-0.
  151. ^ "Transgender Activism". glbtq. Archived from the original on July 2, 2015. Retrieved April 2, 2021.
  152. ^ a b Joanne J. MEYEROWITZ; Joanne J Meyerowitz (30 June 2009). How Sex Changed: A History of Transsexuality in the United States. Harvard University Press. p. 289. ISBN 978-0-674-04096-0.
  153. ^ a b Raymond, Janice (1979). The Transsexual Empire: The Making of the She-Male. Teachers College Press, ISBN 978-0-8070-2164-4
  154. ^ Sayer, Susan (1995-10-01). "From Lesbian Nation to Queer Nation". Hecate. Archived from the original on 2016-01-08. Retrieved 2012-10-03.
  155. ^ Raymond, J. (1994). The Transsexual Empire (2nd ed.). Teachers College Press. The second edition includes a new foreword that describes her anti-trans work after the publication of her thesis project as the first edition in the late 70s.
  156. ^ Atmore, Chris (2002). Sexual Abuse and Troubled Feminism in Snakes and Ladders: Reviewing feminists at the centuries end. Routeledge. p. 92. ISBN 0415197996.
  157. ^ Duggan, Lisa; Hunter, Nan D. (1995). Sex wars: sexual dissent and political culture. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-91036-6.
  158. ^ Hansen, Karen Tranberg; Philipson, Ilene J. (1990). Women, class, and the feminist imagination: a socialist-feminist reader. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. ISBN 0-87722-630-X.
  159. ^ Gerhard, Jane F. (2001). Desiring revolution: second-wave feminism and the rewriting of American sexual thought, 1920 to 1982. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-11204-1.
  160. ^ Leidholdt, Dorchen; Raymond, Janice G (1990). The Sexual liberals and the attack on feminism. New York: Pergamon Press. ISBN 0-08-037457-3.
  161. ^ Vance, Carole S (1989). Pleasure and Danger: Exploring Female Sexuality. Thorsons Publishers. ISBN 0-04-440593-6.
  162. ^ Jeffreys, Sheila (1993). The Lesbian Heresy. North Melbourne, Vic., Australia: Spinifex. p. 130. ISBN 978-1-875559-17-6.
  163. ^ Nina Lykke (5 April 2010). Feminist Studies: A Guide to Intersectional Theory, Methodology and Writing. Routledge. pp. 101–. ISBN 978-1-136-97898-2.
  164. ^ Encyclopedia of government and politics. Hawkesworth, M. E., 1952-, Kogan, Maurice. (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. 2004. ISBN 0-415-27622-5. OCLC 52058199.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  165. ^ ""The Combahee River Collective Statement" (1977)", Available Means, University of Pittsburgh Press, pp. 292–300, 2001, doi:10.2307/j.ctt5hjqnj.50, ISBN 9780822979753
  166. ^ Franklin, V. P. Collier-Thomas, Bettye (2001). Sisters in the struggle : African American women in the Civil Rights-Black Power Movement. New York University Press. ISBN 0-8147-1602-4. OCLC 869188901.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  167. ^ Kyper, John. "Black Lesbians Meet in October." Coming Up: A Calendar of Events 1 (Oct. 1980): 1. Web.
  168. ^ "Reconstructionist Judaism Today". My Jewish Learning. 2002-01-18. Archived from the original on 2013-05-24. Retrieved 2012-11-06.
  169. ^ Dana Evan Kaplan Contemporary American Judaism: transformation and renewal Columbia University Press, 2009 ISBN 0231137281, p. 255
  170. ^ Our Roots Archived 2020-05-11 at the Wayback Machine. Shir Tikvah. Retrieved on 2010-11-30.
  171. ^ Kress, Michael.The Changing Face of the Rabbinate: Exclusively the territory of young men for so long, rabbinical schools today in the non-Orthodox movements are welcoming women and gay students Archived 2013-03-02 at the Wayback Machine
  172. ^ Lesbian Avenger Organizing Handbook Retrieved 2009-3-4.
  173. ^ "Lesbian Avengers Eat Fire, Too". Archived from the original on March 26, 2010. Editors Janet Baus, Su Friedrich. (1993)
  174. ^ a b 1993, Eloise Salholz, Newsweek, "The Power and the Pride."
  175. ^ Cohen, Ruth-Ellen. Dale McCormick finds job as Treasurer challenging, rewarding
  176. ^ Zimmerman, Bonnie. Lesbian Histories and Cultures: An Encyclopedia, Volume 1
  177. ^ "Roberta Achtenberg biography". Browsebiography.com. Retrieved 2013-12-03.
  178. ^ "Batts, Deborah A. (b. 1947)". GLBTQ. Archived from the original on October 2, 2012. Retrieved August 14, 2024.
  179. ^ "Deborah Batts". Queer Theory. Archived from the original on October 11, 2011. Retrieved August 14, 2024.
  180. ^ a b "Baldwin breaks barrier, becomes first openly lesbian House member". CNN. November 3, 1998. Archived from the original on August 23, 2000. Retrieved August 14, 2024.
  181. ^ a b Jordan, Cindy (1999). "NOW Calls Lesbian Rights Supporters to Unite in Strategy". NOW. Archived from the original on February 15, 2010. Retrieved August 14, 2024.
  182. ^ Fox Plans Sapphic Smooch for Party of Five ... Steve O'Donnell of Lateline Lets It All Out | The New York Observer Archived June 16, 2011, at the Wayback Machine. Observer.com (1999-01-31). Retrieved on 2010-11-30.
  183. ^ a b Back in the Day: Melissa Etheridge Comes Out Archived June 28, 2010, at the Wayback Machine. AfterEllen.com. Retrieved on 2010-11-30.
  184. ^ a b Melissa Etheridge Archived July 31, 2010, at the Wayback Machine. Texas Performing Arts (2010-08-02). Retrieved on 2010-11-30.
  185. ^ Melissa Etheridge takes home Oscar for best song | News. Nme.Com (2007-02-26). Retrieved on 2010-11-30.
  186. ^ GRAMMY Artists Revealed To Feature Melissa Etheridge. GRAMMY.com. Retrieved on 2010-11-30.
  187. ^ "OC Fair & Event Center : Fair Times". Ocfair.com. 1995-07-18. Archived from the original on 2013-12-12. Retrieved 2014-06-29.
  188. ^ Getting Hitched: Lesbian Weddings in Film and TV | TV Show Recaps, Celebrity Interviews & News About & For Gay, Lesbian & Bisexual Women Archived 2012-07-16 at archive.today. AfterEllen.com (2008-08-18). Retrieved on 2010-11-30.
  189. ^ a b Ellen DeGeneres: Reluctant Lesbian Icon Archived 2012-07-20 at archive.today. AfterEllen.com. Retrieved on 2010-11-30.
  190. ^ a b Ellen DeGeneres: Reluctant Lesbian Icon (page 2) Archived March 3, 2009, at the Wayback Machine. AfterEllen.com. Retrieved on 2010-11-30.
  191. ^ "Ellen DeGeneres tells Time she's a lesbian". CNN.
  192. ^ Craig A. Rimmerman Gay rights, military wrongs: political perspectives on lesbians and gays in the military, Garland Pub., 1996 ISBN 0815325800 p. 249
  193. ^ Thompson, Mark. (2008-01-28) 'Don't Ask, Don't Tell' Turns 15. TIME. Retrieved on 2010-11-30.
  194. ^ Richard A. Gittins The Military Commander & the Law, DIANE Publishing, 1996 ISBN 0788172603 p. 215
  195. ^ Krista Gesaman (2009-11-29). "Are More Gays, Lesbians Seeking Asylum in U.S.? - Newsweek and The Daily Beast". Newsweek.com. Retrieved 2012-11-06.
  196. ^ "Marriage, Civil Unions and Domestic Partnerships: A Comparison". EqualityMaine. 2008-12-20. Archived from the original on 2012-12-11. Retrieved 2012-11-06.
  197. ^ "Marriage". Lambdaarchives.us. Archived from the original on 2012-11-14. Retrieved 2012-11-06.
  198. ^ Goldberg, Carey (2000-07-02). "In Vermont, Gay Couples Head for the Almost-Altar". The New York Times.
  199. ^ "Lesbian couple wedded at SF City Hall Women had been together for five decades". The San Francisco Chronicle. February 13, 2004. Archived from the original on May 21, 2008.
  200. ^ Jonathan Darman (2009-01-16). "SF Mayor Gavin Newsom Risks Career on Gay Marriage - Newsweek and The Daily Beast". Newsweek.com. Retrieved 2012-11-06.
  201. ^ "Prop 8 proponents seek to nullify same-sex marriages". CNN. 2008-12-19.
  202. ^ "In Memoriam: Del Martin". National Center for Lesbian Rights. Archived from the original on January 11, 2012. Retrieved January 7, 2012.
  203. ^ JESSE McKINLEY (June 16, 2008). "Gay Marriages Begin in California". The New York Times.
  204. ^ California's top court upholds Prop. 8 ban on same-sex marriage. CSMonitor.com (2009-05-27). Retrieved on 2010-11-30.
  205. ^ Gordon, Rachel (2008-08-28). "Same-sex Marriage Timeline". The San Francisco Chronicle. Archived from the original on 2012-01-11.
  206. ^ Feyerick, Deborah; Steffen, Sheila (June 16, 2008). "Same-sex marriage in Massachusetts, 4 years later". CNN. Archived from the original on January 18, 2013. Retrieved August 10, 2024.
  207. ^ "Top 10 Straight Advocates for Gay and Transgender Rights Celebrate Coming Out Day". Human Rights Campaign. October 10, 2005. Archived from the original on October 3, 2022. Retrieved August 10, 2024.
  208. ^ Ho, Catherine (2012-12-14). "Five lawyers take on history in Supreme Court gay-marriage case". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2015-04-28.
  209. ^ "Mary Bonauto argues pivotal same-sex marriage case before Supreme Court - Metro". The Boston Globe. 2015-04-22. Retrieved 2015-04-28.
  210. ^ "First Same-Sex Marriages Performed In Portland". KOMO News. 31 August 2006. Retrieved 2016-07-22.
  211. ^ Uncategorized. "Multnomah Co. issues gay-marriage licenses | Oregon Daily Emerald". Dailyemerald.com. Retrieved 2012-11-06.
  212. ^ "Same sex couples who find marriage sacred aren't satisfied with civil unions". The Oregonian. 2011-07-02.
  213. ^ "Mary Li and Rebecca Kennedy et al. v. State of Oregon et al". Oregon Judicial Department. April 14, 2005. Archived from the original on September 29, 2011. Retrieved 2008-11-23.
  214. ^ 'Step By Step' - Hartford Courant. Articles.courant.com (2009-11-13). Retrieved on 2010-11-30.
  215. ^ Bye, Beth | The Connecticut Mirror Archived March 30, 2013, at the Wayback Machine. Ctmirror.org (2009-07-01). Retrieved on 2010-11-30.
  216. ^ "Same-sex marriage opponents' ranks dwindle". The San Francisco Chronicle. 2008-08-23.
  217. ^ Graves, Bill (May 27, 2009). "Indian gay marriage law takes effect in Oregon". Oregon Faith Report. Archived from the original on January 1, 2010. Retrieved August 10, 2024.
  218. ^ Graves, Bill (May 26, 2009). "Indian gay marriage law takes effect in Oregon". Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life. Archived from the original on January 2, 2011. Retrieved August 10, 2024.
  219. ^ Richburg, Keith B. (2009-04-04). "Iowa Legalizes Same-Sex Marriage". The Washington Post.
  220. ^ Schulte, Grant (2009-04-27). "First same-sex marriage license issued in Iowa". USA Today.
  221. ^ "Vermont becomes 4th U.S. state to allow gay marriage". Reuters. 2009-04-07.
  222. ^ Bendix, Trish (September 8, 2015). "Why don't lesbians have a pride flag of our own?". AfterEllen. Archived from the original on September 9, 2015. Retrieved 8 June 2019.
  223. ^ Brabaw, Kasandra (June 20, 2019). "A Complete Guide To All The LGBTQ+ Flags & What They Mean". Refinery 29. Retrieved August 8, 2024.
  224. ^ "Same-sex couples in D.C. say 'I do'". CNN. March 9, 2010. Archived from the original on March 9, 2010. Retrieved August 12, 2024.
  225. ^ Goodnough, Abby (June 4, 2009). "New Hampshire Legalizes Same-Sex Marriage". The New York Times. Archived from the original on April 14, 2012. Retrieved August 12, 2024.
  226. ^ "New Hampshire now 5th state to allow same-sex marriage". CNN. January 1, 2010. Archived from the original on January 12, 2014. Retrieved August 12, 2024.
  227. ^ Wong, Curtis (June 20, 2011). "Nepal Lesbian Wedding: U.S. Couple Weds In Nation's First Public Same-Sex Ceremony". Huffington Post. Archived from the original on June 22, 2011.
  228. ^ Flock, Elizabeth (2011-07-25). "First gay marriage in New York under rainbow-colored Niagara Falls". The Washington Post.
  229. ^ Jenkins, Sally (2011-06-27). "N.Y. Gov. Cuomo seen as getting political boost from gay marriage bill". The Washington Post.
  230. ^ "AFP: Native American tribe legalizes gay marriage". Google News. Archived from the original on 2012-06-26.
  231. ^ Cartier, Curtis (August 2, 2011). "Meet Heather Purser, The Woman Who Singlehandedly Got Same-Sex Marriage Approved by the Suqamish Tribe". Seattle Weekly. Archived from the original on September 15, 2011.
  232. ^ "Gay Couple Weds in Oklahoma Through Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes Despite State Ban". Indian Country Today Media Network. October 23, 2013. Archived from the original on December 17, 2013. Retrieved August 12, 2024.
  233. ^ LaCorte, Rachel (November 8, 2012). "Washington Voters Approve Gay Marriage". Seattle Times. Archived from the original on October 7, 2013. Retrieved November 9, 2012.
  234. ^ Weise, Elizabeth (December 9, 2012). "Same-sex weddings have their day in Washington state". USA Today. Archived from the original on January 9, 2013. Retrieved August 12, 2024.
  235. ^ "Maine's Same-Sex Marriage Law Goes Into Effect". Huffington Post. Associated Press. 2012-12-29. Retrieved 2012-12-29.
  236. ^ Lin II, Rong-Gong (June 26, 2013). "Obama calls to congratulate Prop. 8 plaintiffs from Air Force One". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved June 27, 2013.
  237. ^ Sieczkowski, Cavan (June 26, 2013). "Hollingsworth v. Perry Decision Prompts Plaintiff In Prop 8 Case To Propose To Boyfriend". Huffington Post. Retrieved June 27, 2013.
  238. ^ "County Clerks Ready for Marriage License Rush". NBC Bay Area. June 28, 2013. Retrieved June 29, 2013.
  239. ^ Chase, Randall (July 1, 2013). "Delaware Sees First Same-Sex Marriage Ceremony". Associated Press.
  240. ^ McCombs, Brady (2013-12-20). "Gay couples wed in Utah after judge overturns ban". USA Today.
  241. ^ Santos, Fernanda (2013-12-19). "New Mexico Becomes 17th State to Allow Gay Marriage". The New York Times.
  242. ^ Andrew Potts (2013-11-16). "8th US Native American tribe allows same-sex couples to wed". Gay Star News. Archived from the original on 2019-07-30. Retrieved 2014-06-29.
  243. ^ "New Jersey Couples Celebrate the State's First Same-Sex Marriages". nation.time.com (Time U.S.). October 21, 2013. Retrieved October 21, 2013.
  244. ^ "California Native American Tribe Announces Support of Same Sex Marriage: Santa Ysabel Tribe First in California to Make Proclamation". Rock Hill Herald Online. 2013-06-24. Archived from the original on 2013-06-28. Retrieved 2013-06-25.
  245. ^ "Pokagon Band Of Potawatomi Indians Marriage Code" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-01-30. Retrieved 2013-12-03.
  246. ^ "West Michigan couple have first same-sex wedding in Pokagon Tribal Court". WWMT Newschannel 3. 2013-06-21. Archived from the original on 2013-06-27. Retrieved 2013-06-25.
  247. ^ "Colvilles recognize same sex marriage". Wenatcheeworld.com. 2013-09-07. Retrieved 2013-12-03.
  248. ^ Rudolph, Christopher (March 15, 2013). "Michigan Native American Tribe Recognizes Same-Sex Marriage". The Advocate. Retrieved March 16, 2013.
  249. ^ "Gay couples get hitched in Minnesota, Rhode Island". Yahoo News. August 1, 2013. Retrieved August 3, 2013.
  250. ^ Utah will not recognize same-sex marriages performed before high court stay – CNN Political Ticker - CNN.com Blogs Archived 2014-07-11 at the Wayback Machine. Politicalticker.blogs.cnn.com (2014-07-17). Retrieved on 2014-07-25.
  251. ^ a b Tareen, Sophia. "Same-sex couple's wedding a first for Illinois". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 2013-12-13. Retrieved 2014-06-29.
  252. ^ "Joyous same-sex couples wed in Hawaii as gay marriage becomes legal". Chicago Tribune. 2013-12-02.
  253. ^ Clare Kim (2013-11-27). "Same-sex couples facing terminal illness in Illinois can wed immediately". MSNBC. Retrieved 2014-06-29.
  254. ^ Greenblatt, Alan. (2014-07-18) Appeals Court Upholds Ruling To Lift Oklahoma Same-Sex-Marriage Ban : The Two-Way. NPR. Retrieved on 2014-07-25.
  255. ^ "Court indefinitely suspends overturn of gay marriage ban in Michigan". NY Daily News. 2014-03-25. Retrieved 2014-06-29.
  256. ^ DiBlasio, Natalie (2014-03-22). "First gay couple married in Michigan". USA Today.
  257. ^ Michael Winter (2014-05-16). "Ark. high court again suspends gay marriage". USA TODAY. Retrieved 2014-06-29.
  258. ^ "Arkansas issues state's first gay marriage license". Al Jazeera America. 2014-05-10. Retrieved 2014-06-29.
  259. ^ "Gay marriage in Oregon: First couple exchanges vows in Multnomah County building". OregonLive.com. 2014-05-19. Retrieved 2014-06-29.
  260. ^ "U.S. News". ABC News. 2014-06-18. Retrieved 2014-06-29.
  261. ^ Ring, Trudy (2014-06-13). "Same-Sex Marriages End in Wisconsin, for Now". Advocate.com. Retrieved 2014-06-29.
  262. ^ Chokshi, Niraj. "Pennsylvania Gov. Corbett says he's not going to fight ruling allowing gay marriage". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2014-06-29.
  263. ^ O'Brien, Brendan (2014-06-07). "Federal judge strikes down Wisconsin ban on gay marriage". Reuters. Archived from the original on 2014-06-26. Retrieved 2014-06-29.
  264. ^ "Same-sex marriage rulings: What the judges have said". The Washington Post. 2014-05-26. Retrieved 2014-06-29.
  265. ^ AP (2014-05-20). "Court: Gay marriage must remain on hold in Idaho". USA Today. Retrieved 2014-06-29.
  266. ^ U.S. News | National News - ABC News. Abcnews.go.com (2014-07-13). Retrieved on 2014-07-25.
  267. ^ Ind. judge grants same-sex divorce. Usatoday.com (2014-07-03). Retrieved on 2014-07-25.
  268. ^ a b "Same-sex marriage: AG Suthers asks Colorado Supreme Court to stop Boulder clerk issuing licenses". 7NEWS. Archived from the original on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 5 October 2014.
  269. ^ U.S. News | National News - ABC News. Abcnews.go.com (2014-07-13). Retrieved on 2014-07-25.
  270. ^ Coffman, Keith. (2014-07-09) Judge strikes down Colorado gay marriage ban, stays ruling Archived 2015-09-24 at the Wayback Machine. Reuters. Retrieved on 2014-07-25.
  271. ^ Top Colorado Court Halts Denver Gay Marriages - ABC News. Abcnews.go.com (2014-07-18). Retrieved on 2014-07-25.
  272. ^ U.S. judge strikes down Colorado gay marriage ban. Usatoday.com (2014-07-18). Retrieved on 2014-07-25.
  273. ^ Judge strikes down Colorado's gay-marriage ban, stays ruling | Dallas Morning News. Dallasnews.com. Retrieved on 2014-07-25.
  274. ^ "Colorado Supreme Court Orders End To Same-Sex Marriage Licenses". ThinkProgress. Retrieved 5 October 2014.
  275. ^ Judge Won't Lift Fla. Keys Gay Marriage Stay - ABC News. Abcnews.go.com (2014-07-21). Retrieved on 2014-07-25.
  276. ^ unknown (2014-07-25). "Miami-Dade judge: Florida's gay-marriage ban unconstitutional; couples can wed, but not until case is appealed". The Miami Herald.
  277. ^ "Third judge finds Florida's gay marriage ban unconstitutional". Los Angeles Times. 4 August 2014. Retrieved 5 October 2014.
  278. ^ ABC News. "U.S." ABC News. Retrieved 5 October 2014.
  279. ^ "Supreme Court blocks Virginia same-sex marriages". Washington Blade: Gay News, Politics, LGBT Rights. 20 August 2014. Retrieved 5 October 2014.
  280. ^ Eckholm, Erik (2014-07-28). "Appeals Panel Rejects Virginia Gay-Marriage Ban". The New York Times. Retrieved 5 October 2014.
  281. ^ "Is Tennessee's Ruling Against Gay Marriage a Setback for the Cause?". The Atlantic. 13 August 2014. Retrieved 5 October 2014.
  282. ^ "Bucking trend, federal judge upholds gay marriage ban in Louisiana". Los Angeles Times. 3 September 2014. Retrieved 5 October 2014.
  283. ^ "U.S. court rejects gay-marriage bans as 'implausible'". Reuters. 2014-09-04. Archived from the original on 2014-10-06. Retrieved 5 October 2014.
  284. ^ "Same-sex couple denied marriage license here". 25 September 2014. Retrieved 5 October 2014.
  285. ^ "La. state judge: Gay marriage ban unconstitutional". 22 September 2014. Retrieved 5 October 2014.
  286. ^ Garcia, Michelle (October 6, 2014). "BREAKING: Supreme Court Sends Marriage to 5 States; More to Come?". The Advocate.
  287. ^ "Justice Kennedy Blocks Gay Marriage Ruling". Associated Press. Oct 8, 2014. Retrieved 8 October 2014.
  288. ^ "Supreme Court: Marriage Equality Back On in Nevada". The Advocate. Oct 8, 2014. Retrieved 9 October 2014.
  289. ^ a b "With Nevada, same-sex marriage legal in more than half the states; W.Va. next". CNN. Oct 9, 2014. Retrieved 10 October 2014.
  290. ^ "Couples rush to wed as NC gay marriage ban dumped". Yahoo News. 11 October 2014. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016.
  291. ^ "WV MetroNews – State halts fight against same-sex marriages; licenses being issued". 9 October 2014.
  292. ^ "West Virginia Won't Fight Challenge To Gay Marriage Ban". The Huffington Post. 9 October 2014.
  293. ^ "Alaska Gay Couples Apply for Marriage Licenses". ABC News.
  294. ^ "Gay Marriage Becomes Legal in Arizona". ABC News.
  295. ^ Ryan Haarer (7 October 2014). "Same-sex marriage now legal in Colorado". Archived from the original on 11 October 2014.
  296. ^ "Gay marriage arrives in conservative Idaho". OANow.com. Archived from the original on 2014-10-16.
  297. ^ "Wyoming becomes latest to legalize gay marriage". Houston Chronicle. Archived from the original on 2014-10-25.
  298. ^ "Sotomayor Issues Order Temporarily Blocking Gay Marriage In Kansas". CBS Local.
  299. ^ "Latest local breaking news by The State Newspaper in Columbia, SC - The State". Archived from the original on 15 November 2014. Retrieved 15 November 2014.
  300. ^ "Supreme Court lifts hold on gay marriage in Kansas". Fox News. 2014-11-12. Retrieved 15 November 2014.
  301. ^ "Same-sex marriage now allowed in most populous Kansas county". Reuters. 2014-11-19. Archived from the original on 2015-10-19. Retrieved 22 November 2014.
  302. ^ "Appeals court knocks back Kansas' attempt to maintain same-sex marriage ban". Gay Star News. 3 December 2014. Archived from the original on 9 December 2014. Retrieved 5 December 2014.
  303. ^ Mike Ferguson Billings Gazette. "Some Montana clerks exempt from issuing same-sex marriage licenses". Montana Standard. Retrieved 22 November 2014.
  304. ^ "Legal same-sex marriage rolls across South Carolina". Post and Courier. Retrieved 22 November 2014.
  305. ^ Kurtis Lee (2014-11-12). "Federal judge strikes down South Carolina's same-sex marriage ban". LA Times.
  306. ^ "Marriage equality kicks off early in South Carolina". MSNBC. Retrieved 28 November 2014.
  307. ^ "Arkansas, Mississippi overturn gay marriage bans". Fox News. 2014-11-25. Retrieved 26 November 2014.
  308. ^ "News". St. Louis County Government. Archived from the original on 2014-11-06. Retrieved 2015-01-06.
  309. ^ Dan Margolies; Peggy Lowe (11 November 2014). "Timeline: Same-Sex Marriage In Missouri And Kansas".
  310. ^ DeAnn Smith; Jonathan Carter (7 November 2014). "Jackson County issues marriage licenses to gay couples after rul". worldnow.com. Archived from the original on 6 January 2015.
  311. ^ Sunnivie Brydum (6 November 2014). "Four Marriage Bans Upheld; Next Stop Supreme Court?". The Advocate.
  312. ^ Arian Campo-Flores (2 January 2015). "Florida Judge Clears Way for Gay Marriage". WSJ.
  313. ^ Mazzei, Patricia; Rothaus, Steve (January 5, 2015). "Same-sex marriages begin in Miami-Dade County". Miami Herald. Retrieved April 2, 2021.
  314. ^ a b Schneider, Mike (January 6, 2015). "Gay Marriage Ban Ends as Couples Wed Throughout Florida". ABC News. Archived from the original on January 6, 2015. Retrieved April 2, 2021.
  315. ^ Wilson, Reid (2015-01-13). "Judge strikes down South Dakota gay marriage ban". The Washington Post.
  316. ^ Mai-Duc, Christine (23 January 2015). "Federal judge strikes down Alabama bans on same-sex marriage". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on January 24, 2015.
  317. ^ "BREAKING: Federal Judge Issues 14-Day Stay On Alabama Same-Sex Marriage". Joe.My.God. January 25, 2015. Retrieved April 2, 2021.
  318. ^ Snow, Justin (January 27, 2015). "Alabama same-sex marriage ban declared unconstitutional for second time". Metro Weekly. Retrieved April 2, 2021.
  319. ^ Sherrel Wheeler Stewart (February 9, 2015). "Same-sex couples marry in Alabama after U.S. Supreme Court refuses stay". MSN. Archived from the original on February 9, 2015. Retrieved April 2, 2021.
  320. ^ a b Robertson, Campbell (February 12, 2015). "U.S. Orders Alabama to License Gay Unions". The New York Times.
  321. ^ KIM CHANDLER 1. "Alabama's stand against gay marriage crumbles - Yahoo News". News.yahoo.com. Archived from the original on 2015-02-14. Retrieved 2015-02-14.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  322. ^ Levine, Sam (June 17, 2014). "Texas Judge Rules State Ban On Same-Sex Marriage Unconstitutional". Huffingtonpost.com. Retrieved April 2, 2021.
  323. ^ a b Berman, Mark (2015-02-19). "Texas county issues its first marriage license to same-sex couple; Texas Supreme Court issues stay halting other marriages". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2015-02-20.
  324. ^ Schoenfeld, Ed (February 24, 2015). "Tlingit-Haida Central Council OKs same-sex marriages". KCAW. Retrieved April 2, 2021.
  325. ^ "Southeast Alaska tribal organization OKs gay marriage". Daily News-Miner. February 25, 2015. Retrieved April 2, 2021.
  326. ^ Pilger, Lori. "Judge strikes down state's ban on same-sex marriage". M.journalstar.com. Archived from the original on March 9, 2015. Retrieved 2015-03-02.
  327. ^ Raffy Ermac (6 March 2015). "No Nebraska Marriage Equality Yet, Says Federal Appeals Court". Advocate.com. Retrieved 2015-03-07.
  328. ^ Associated Press in Montgomery (1970-01-01). "Alabama supreme court halts same-sex marriages | US news". The Guardian. Retrieved 2015-03-04.
  329. ^ Garces, Grace (2015-04-08). "HAGATNA, Guam: A guide to the gay marriage dispute in US territory of Guam | World News | Bradenton Herald". Bradenton.com. Archived from the original on 2015-04-17. Retrieved 2015-04-17.
  330. ^ a b Grace Garces Bordallo (2015-04-14). "Guam Becomes 1st U.S. Territory To Allow Gay Marriage". Huffingtonpost.com. Retrieved 2015-04-17.
  331. ^ "Judge: Gay Couples Across Alabama Have Right to Marry - ABC News". Abcnews.go.com. 2012-09-27. Retrieved 2015-05-22.
  332. ^ "Guam becomes first US territory to recognise same-sex marriage". The Guardian. June 5, 2015. Retrieved April 2, 2021.
  333. ^ Grace Garces Bordallo (9 June 2015). "Gay couples in Guam start applying for marriage licenses". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 9 June 2015.
  334. ^ Grace Garces Bordallo (9 June 2015). "First gay couple to marry in US territory ties knot in Guam". seattlepi.com. Archived from the original on 2015-06-27.
  335. ^ Liptak, Adam (June 26, 2015). "Same-Sex Marriage Is a Right, Supreme Court Rules, 5-4". New York Times. Retrieved June 26, 2015.
  336. ^ Barbash, Fred (2014-07-16). "Supreme Court hears same-sex marriage case: Who said what (with audio)". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2015-06-26.
  337. ^ "Mary Bonauto argues pivotal same-sex marriage case before Supreme Court - Metro". The Boston Globe. 2015-04-28. Retrieved 2015-06-26.
  338. ^ Maraniss, A. (2021). Singled Out: The True Story of Glenn Burke. Penguin Young Readers Group. p. 95. ISBN 978-0-593-11673-9. Retrieved 2024-11-06.
  339. ^ Hulse, Carl (October 9, 2009). "House Votes to Expand Hate Crimes Definition". The New York Times.
  340. ^ "President Obama signs repeal of 'don't ask, don't tell' policy - Tampa Bay Times". Tampabay.com. Archived from the original on 2012-10-15. Retrieved 2012-11-06.
  341. ^ Bumiller, Elisabeth (2011-07-22). "Obama Ends 'Don't Ask, Don't Tell' Policy". The New York Times.
  342. ^ "Official Repeal of Gay Ban Causing Few Waves in Military". Fox News. 2011-09-20.
  343. ^ "Supreme Court strikes down Defense of Marriage Act, paves way for gay marriage to resume in California". NBC News. June 26, 2013. Retrieved June 27, 2013.
  344. ^ "'I cried, I cried': DOMA widow says on hearing of Supreme Court win". NBC News. June 26, 2013. Retrieved June 27, 2013.
  345. ^ Thomaston, Scottie (June 26, 2013). "Analysis: Supreme Court Invalidates Section 3 of DOMA, Paving the Way for Federal Recognition of Same-Sex Marriages". Huffington Post. Retrieved June 27, 2013.
  346. ^ "DOMA: For lesbian plaintiff, moral victory and a $363,053 tax refund". Los Angeles Times. June 26, 2013. Retrieved June 27, 2013.
  347. ^ "Gay Marriage's Legal Crusader". tabletmag.com. March 24, 2013. Retrieved June 27, 2013.
  348. ^ "Executive Order -- Further Amendments to Executive Order 11478, Equal Employment Opportunity in the Federal Government, and Executive Order 11246, Equal Employment Opportunity". The White House. Archived from the original on December 5, 2014. Retrieved 5 December 2014.
  349. ^ Carpenter, Dale (2012-12-14). "Anti-gay discrimination is sex discrimination, says the EEOC". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2015-07-17.
  350. ^ Tatectate, Curtis. "EEOC: Federal law bans workplace bias against gays, lesbians, bisexuals | Miami Herald Miami Herald". Miamiherald.com. Retrieved 2015-07-17.
  351. ^ "SCOTUS says Arkansas must list same-sex parents on children's birth certificates". Metro Weekly. Retrieved 2017-06-27.
  352. ^ Matthew Rozsa (2017-06-06). "Supreme Court will hear Trump's travel ban, and other major revelations". Salon.com. Retrieved 2017-06-27.
  353. ^ "Marisa N. Pavan, et al. v. Nathaniel Smith" (PDF). Supreme Court of the United States. June 26, 2017. Retrieved April 2, 2021.
  354. ^ Bostock v. Clayton County, No. 17-1618, 590 U.S. ___ (2020).
  355. ^ Stern, Mark Joseph (26 July 2017). "Trump Administration Argues Federal Civil Rights Law Does Not Protect Gay Employees". Slate.
  356. ^ a b "Tammy Baldwin is elected the first openly gay senator". news.yahoo.com. 2012-11-05. Archived from the original on 2013-10-29. Retrieved 2012-11-06.
  357. ^ "Urvashi Vaid | Women Inspiring Change". Orgs.law.harvard.edu. 2 March 2015. Archived from the original on 2018-12-29. Retrieved 2015-06-18.
  358. ^ Harris, Paul (July 11, 2012). "Lesbian Super Pac to spend big in fight for gay and women's rights". The Guardian. London. Retrieved July 13, 2012.
  359. ^ Schultheis, Emily (July 11, 2012). "Pro-lesbian super PAC debuts". Politico. Retrieved July 13, 2012.
  360. ^ Camia, Catalina (July 11, 2012). "Lesbian PAC launches to boost clout of women". USA Today. Retrieved July 13, 2012.
  361. ^ "First Lesbian Super PAC Launched". Feminist Majority Foundation. July 20, 2012. Retrieved April 2, 2021.
  362. ^ Bendix, Trish (2015-03-27). "Morning Brew - Gillian Anderson would date a woman again". AfterEllen. Retrieved 2015-04-17.
  363. ^ "Leading National LGBT Organization Names First Woman, First Black President - BuzzFeed News". Buzzfeed.com. 2013-07-24. Retrieved 2015-04-17.
  364. ^ ""Buffy" to Show First Lesbian Sex Scene on Broadcast TV - AfterEllen". afterellen.com. Archived from the original on 7 March 2016. Retrieved 15 May 2022.
  365. ^ Rylah, Juliet Bennett (March 15, 2017). "How BUFFY THE VAMPIRE SLAYER Depicted One of TV's First Lesbian Relationships". Nerdist. Archived from the original on January 12, 2020. Retrieved August 14, 2024.
  366. ^ Geisel, Natalie. "Willow Rosenberg's Coming Out Story Still Makes My Lesbian Heart Soar". The Thirlby. Archived from the original on October 2, 2020. Retrieved August 14, 2024.
  367. ^ Rutherford, Amanda; Baker, Sarah (2020). "Upgrading The L Word: Generation Q". M/C Journal. 23 (6). doi:10.5204/mcj.2727. hdl:10292/13866. S2CID 229434374.
  368. ^ "Hollywood Flashback: 'L Word' Was a Groundbreaking Take on Gay Women's Lives". The Hollywood Reporter. 15 December 2019.
  369. ^ Framke, Caroline (2016-03-25). "Queer women have been killed on television for decades. Now The 100's fans are fighting back". Vox. Retrieved 2023-06-15.
  370. ^ "Bury Your Gays: Why 'The 100,' 'Walking Dead' Deaths Are Problematic (Guest Column)". The Hollywood Reporter. 21 March 2016.
  371. ^ "Where we are on TV '16-'17" (PDF). GLAAD. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 1, 2020. Retrieved August 14, 2024.
  372. ^ "The Legend Of Korra: "Day Of The Colossus"/"The Last Stand"". The A.V. Club. 2014-12-19. Retrieved 2023-06-15.
  373. ^ Babu, Amanda (May 15, 2020). "'She-Ra' and 'Harley Quinn' mark a historic day for LGBTQ+ representation in animated series". MEAWW. Archived from the original on October 31, 2020. Retrieved August 14, 2024.
  374. ^ "She-Ra star and show runner break down season 5's queer finale". Digital Spy. 15 May 2020.
  375. ^ "Batwoman replaces Ruby Rose's Kate Kane with a brand new character, out lesbian Ryan Wilder". CNET. Retrieved 2023-06-15.
  376. ^ "Where we are on TV 2021-2022" (PDF). GLAAD. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 15, 2022. Retrieved August 14, 2024.
  377. ^ Rothaus, Steve (June 12, 2016). "Pulse Orlando shooting scene a popular LGBT club where employees, patrons 'like family'". Miami Herald. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
  378. ^ Tsukayama, Hayley; Berman, Mark; Markon, Jerry (June 13, 2016). "Gunman who killed 49 in Orlando nightclub had pledged allegiance to ISIS". The Washington Post. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
  379. ^ "Victims". City of Orlando. June 12, 2016. Retrieved June 12, 2016.
  380. ^ Teague, Matthew; McCarthy, Ciara; Puglise, Nicole (June 13, 2016). "Orlando attack victims: the lives cut short in America's deadliest shooting". The Guardian. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
  381. ^ "Orlando gay nightclub shooting: 50 killed, suspect is Omar Mateen - BBC News". Bbc.com. 2016-06-12. Retrieved 2016-06-18.
  382. ^ Ellis, Ralph (2016-06-13). "Orlando shooting: 49 killed, shooter pledged ISIS allegiance". CNN.com. Retrieved 2016-06-18.
  383. ^ "Orlando shooting: At least 50 killed in Pulse nightclub mass shooting - ABC News (Australian Broadcasting Corporation)". Abc.net.au. 2016-06-13. Retrieved 2016-06-18.
  384. ^ "Islamic State claims responsibility for Orlando nightclub shooting". Reuters. June 12, 2016. Archived from the original on June 12, 2016. Retrieved August 6, 2024.
  385. ^ a b "ISIS Claims Responsibility For Deadly Orlando Nightclub Attack « CBS New York". Newyork.cbslocal.com. 2016-06-12. Retrieved 2016-06-18.
  386. ^ Costello, Becca (2002-06-20). "Pulp friction". Sacramento News & Review. Retrieved 2007-12-02.
  387. ^ "Ellen DeGeneres hosts the 79th Academy Awards as the first openly gay woman". Famousdaily.com. 2012-02-25. Archived from the original on 2013-03-02. Retrieved 2012-11-06.
  388. ^ "Ellen DeGeneres gets star on Walk of Fame". todaysthv.com. 2012-09-05. Archived from the original on 2013-02-05. Retrieved 2012-11-06.
  389. ^ "Melissa Etheridge returns to Hawaii in July – Honolulu, Hawaii Calendar of Events – Hawaii Entertainment and Nightlife – Honolulu Pulse". Honolulupulse.com. 2012-03-21. Archived from the original on 2012-06-15. Retrieved 2012-11-06.
  390. ^ Shavick, Lily (2011-09-13). "Jane Lynch: Mother, Wife, and All Around Lesbian Super Star". SheWired. Retrieved 2012-11-06.
  391. ^ "Congrats to Rachel Maddow; Knock 'em Dead Tonight!". Lebiatopia. September 8, 2008. Archived from the original on November 7, 2009. Retrieved April 2, 2021.
  392. ^ Donovan, Laura (2015-08-27). "This Viral Music Video Brilliantly Portrays Sexual Fluidity". ATTN. Retrieved 2023-06-15.
  393. ^ "Linda Perry". Songwriters Hall of Fame. Archived from the original on February 15, 2019. Retrieved August 8, 2024.
  394. ^ "How Lena Waithe's coming-out story inspired the 'Master of None' Thanksgiving episode". Los Angeles Times. 2017-08-10. Retrieved 2023-06-15.
  395. ^ Rosario, Alexandra Del (2020-06-13). "Lena Waithe, Jonica Gibbs Explore How Lesbian Representation in TV Creates a "Space of Understanding"". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved 2023-06-15.
  396. ^ Anderson-Minshall, Diane (January 13, 2013). "Jodie Foster Comes Out and Maybe Retires". Advocate. Archived from the original on February 9, 2013. Retrieved August 8, 2024.
  397. ^ Dominus, Susan (May 14, 2009). "Suze Orman Is Having a Moment". The New York Times.

Bibliography

edit
edit