Magar
Dhut, मगर भाषा
Native toNepal
Ethnicity1.9 million Magar people and others who claim to be Magar (2011 census)[1]
Native speakers
770,116 (2001)[1]
Dialects
  • Tanahu
  • Syangja
Official status
Official language in
Nepal
Sikkim, India
Language codes
ISO 639-3Either:
mgp – Eastern Magar
mrd – Western Magar
Glottologmaga1261

Magar (Nepali: मगर भाषा Dhut magar bhasa) is a language spoken mainly in West-Central Nepal, Southern Bhutan, Darjeeling, India, and Sikkim, India, by the Magar people. Magar belongs to the Bodic branch of the Tibeto-Burman language family, and contains two dialects: Tanahu, the western branch of Magar, and Syangja, an eastern branch of Magar. In 2001, it was estimated that there were approximately 770,116 speakers of the language.[2]: 18  Even with this large number of speakers, the language is still considered endangered at level 6b (threatened)[3] since the number of children using and learning the language is rapidly declining[2].

While the government of Nepal developed Magar language curricula, as provisioned by constitution, the teaching materials have never successfully reached Magar schools, where most school instruction is in Nepali language.[4] It's not unusual for groups with their own language to feel that the "mother-tongue" is an essential part of identity. Dhut Magar language is sometimes lumped with Kham magar language spoken further west in Bheri, Dhaulagiri, Karnali and Rapti zones. Although the two languages have a large number of words in common, they have major structural differences and are not mutually intelligible.[5]

Geographical distribution

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Western Magar

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Western Magar (dialects: Palpa and Syangja) is spoken in the following districts of Nepal (Ethnologue).[citation needed]

Eastern Magar

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Eastern Magar (dialects: Gorkha, Nawalparasi, and Tanahu) is spoken in the following districts of Nepal (Ethnologue).[citation needed]

Phonology

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Consonants

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The Magar language contains 37 consonants. Around half of the consonants contain a murmured-voice counterpart, and several consonants include aspirated or dental counterparts. For places of articulation in the table below, voiced consonants appear in the right sub-column and their voiceless counterparts appear in the left sub-column.

Consonant Phonemes
Bilabial Dental Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
Stop p b t̪ t̪ʰ d̪ʰ d̪ t d k ɡ ʔ 
Nasal m n ŋ ŋɦ
Affricate j c cɦ
Murmured Affricate
Fricative s h hɦ
Approximant ɹ ɹɦ
Lateral Approximant l lɦ
Glide w y
Murmured Glide

All 37 consonants are found in the Tanahu dialect of Magar, while the Syangja dialect of Magar does not contain the dental stops [t̪ ], [t̪ʰ], [d̪ʰ], [d̪]. Within Tanahu, the words containing [t̪ ], [t̪ʰ], [d̪ʰ], [d̪] are borrowed from the Nepali language.[2]: 42 

Vowels

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The Magar language contains 10 phonemic vowels. This includes 4 dipthongs [ei] [oi] [au] [eu], and 6 monopthongs detailed in the table below[2].

Vowel Phonemes
Front Central Back
High i

ei oi

u

au eu

Close-mid e o
Open-mid ʌ
Low a

Magar's six-vowel system /i e ʌ u o a/ is similar to that of Nepali, likely as a result of language contact with Nepali. Additionally, the dipthong [eu] is found primarily in words borrowed from the Nepali language.[2]: 33 

Syllable Structure

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Magar has the syllable template (O)(A)(G)V(G)(C), where O represents an obstruent, A represents an approximant, and G represents a glide.[2]: 89  Within Magar the simplest allowable syllable structure is V, and the most common syllable structure is CV where C is either an obstruent or approximant.

Syllable structure in Magar is organized according to the sonority hierarchy, with more sonorant consonants such as glides located closer to the vowel nucleus of the syllable[2]: 90 . In syllables with complex onsets, the first consonant is usually an obstruent. All consonants are allowed in simple onsets, with the exception of /r/ which appears in consonant clusters of (O)(R)(G). While native Magar codas typically consist of at most a single consonant, words borrowed from the Nepali language may include consonant clusters (e.g. sʌrk ''cobbler'[2]: 90 ). Codas in Magar also exclude [h]. Furthermore, the consonants [b], [bɦ], [d], [dɦ], [g], [gɦ], [c],  [cʰ],  [j], and [jʰ] only appear in the codas of words borrowed from the Nepali language, and not in the codas of native Magar words[2].: 90 

Syllable Pattern Examples
Template Instantiation Translation
CV /.nʌ/ 'people': 66 
CCV /chu/ 'touch': 65 
CVCC /sʌrk/ 'cobbler': 90 
CCVC /pruŋ/ 'bud': 90 
CCCVC /khyo.mo/ 'emerge': 162 

Stress and Tone

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Within Magar, stress is predictable and typically falls on the root morpheme of the word. If the root consists of multiple syllables, then the stress will fall on the last syllable, e.g. the stressed syllable is "dam" in the morpheme / lu.kuj.'dam/ ('owl').[2]: 42  Magar originally did not make use of tone, but there is ongoing development of two distinct registers: a clear register, and a murmured register resulting from borrowed elements of the Nepali language.[2]: 88 

Morphology

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Magar is classified as an agglutinative language[2]: 33  and makes use of prefixes, circumfixes, and suffixes. Verbs in Magar also make use of circumfixes. Compared to other Himalayish languages, Magar contains more suffixes relative to prefixes.[2]: 33 

Affixation in Magar

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The table below lists several major uses of affixation and examples, including number, tense, classifier, aspect, and mood.

Affixation and Function Example(s)
prefix mi-

Indicates inalienable posession.

mi-mik

POSS-eye

'my eye': 93 

suffix -ko

Indicate plural nouns.

nɦis

two

rokotyak-ko

frog-PL

nɦis rokotyak-ko

two frog-PL

'two frogs': 103 
suffix -jʌnʌ

Classifier referring to the class of humans.

lokanda-ko

groomsman-PL

som-jʌnʌ

three-H.NUM

lokanda-ko som-jʌnʌ

groomsman-PL three-H.NUM

'three groomsmen': 102 

suffix -wotʌ (in Tanahu)

suffix -gotʌ (in Syangja)

Classifier referring to the class of non-humans.

buli-gotʌ

four-N.H.NUM

la-ke

take-NOM

buli-gotʌ la-ke

four-N.H.NUM take-NOM

'I'll take four (items)': 102 

suffix -a

Past tense marker. In Magar, the non-past tense is unmarked.

ja-ja

child-child

si-a

die-PST

ja-ja si-a

child-child die-PST

'The child died.': 217 

le and suffix -le

Imperfective aspect marker. In Magar, the perfective aspect is unmarked.

ho-se-e

D.DEM-DEF-ERG

mis-ke

sleep-NOM

le

IMPF

ho-se-e mis-ke le

D.DEM-DEF-ERG sleep-NOM IMPF

'He has yet to sleep.': 182 

ho-se-e

D.DEM-DEF-ERG

mis-le

sleep-IMPF

ho-se-e mis-le

D.DEM-DEF-ERG sleep-IMPF

'He sleeps.' : 182 

circumfix a-Σ-e

Irrealis mood marker, used to describe situations that are potential and

speculative rather than truthful. In contrast, the realis mood, which is

used to express reality, is unmarked.

Realis mood:

ram

Ram

im-aŋ

house-LOC

le

COP

ram im-aŋ le

Ram house-LOC COP

'Ram is in the house.': 183 

Irrealis mood:

ram

Ram

im-aŋ

house-LOC

a-ule-e

IRR-COP-IRR

ram im-aŋ a-ule-e

Ram house-LOC IRR-COP-IRR

'Ram may be in the house': 183 

prefix -tʌ

Optative mood marker, used to describe the speaker's hope for a

situation to be realized. This is only present in the Syangha dialect

of Magar.

ŋa-o

IS-GEN

minam

new

im

house

a-tʌ-chanɦ-e

IRR-OPT-become-IRR

ŋa-o minam im a-tʌ-chanɦ-e

IS-GEN new house IRR-OPT-become-IRR

'May I have a new house.': 185 
suffix -ni (in Tanahu)

suffix -nis (in Synagja)

Honorific imperative mood marker, used to signify a command or

request to someone in a position of higher status.

sita

Sita

ra-naŋ

come-SIM

jɦor-ni

hello-IMP.HON

sita ra-naŋ jɦor-ni

Sita come-SIM hello-IMP.HON

'When Sita is coming, say hello!': 187 

suffix -iŋ

Inclusive hortative mood marker, used to make a polite suggestion

to the effect of "let us".

ga-iŋ

drink-HORT

ga-iŋ

drink-HORT

'Let us drink!': 189 

Nominalization

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Nominalization is present within Magar verbs and has a derivational effect. There are 3 nominalizing suffixes: -cyo ~ cʌ, -ke, and -mʌ.[2]: 204 

Nominalization Examples in Magar
Nominalization Example

(root verb in bold)

Additional Notes
rup-cyo-ko

sew-NOM-PL

'tailors': 206 

-cyo is used within the Tanahu dialect of Magar to derive

free-standing agent and patient nominals from verbs.

sya-cʌ

dance-NOM

'dancer': 205 

-cʌ is used within the Synagja dialect of Magar where -cyo

is used within Tanahu .

khus-ke

thieve-NOM

'theft': 209 

-ke is used to derive actions and events from verbs
l̤iŋ-mʌ

sing-NOM

'singing': 211 

-mʌ is less commonly used as a nominalizer than -cyo ~ cʌ

and -kʌ. It is primarily used in the derivation of gerunds.

Reduplication

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In Magar, reduplication most commonly has an intensifying effect, with examples given in the table below.

Reduplication Examples in Magar
Reduplication Example Reduplication Function
phal-phal

fruit-fruit

‘lots of fruit’: 104 

conveys plurality and multiplicity
ja-ja

child-child

'very little children': 95 

diminutive effect
mit-mit

bondfriend-bondfriend

'very close friends': 95 

increases endearment

In some instances, reduplication has a derivational effect. For example, /siŋgar/ is a verb meaning 'adorn', and the reduplicated form /siŋgar-paŋgar/ is the noun meaning 'adornment': 96 .[2]

Compounding

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Nouns may be formed via compounding in Magar. Nouns can be combined with other nouns, quantifiers, or verbs, as shown in the table below.

Compounding Examples in Magar
Noun Compounding Type Example
Noun combined with another noun nam-khan-du

'sky + heat + insect'

'cicada': 93 

Noun combined with verb nam-su

'sky-blow'

'wind': 93 

Noun combined with quantifier kat-yak

'one + day'

once upon a time': 93 


Case

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Magar makes use of an ergative/absolutive case system. There are four grammatical case clitics present in both dialects of Magar: absolutive, ergative, dative, and genitive.

Absolutive Case
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In Magar, the absolutive case is zero-marked. The absolutive case is used to indicate the object of a transitive verb or the subject in an intransitive clause.[2]

mipruŋ-∅

Mirpung-ABS

mis-a

sleep-PST

mipruŋ-∅ mis-a

Mirpung-ABS sleep-PST

'Miprung slept' : 110  (Example marking the subject of an intransitive clause)

mipruŋ-e

Mirpung-ERG

cho-∅

rice.meal-ABS

mipruŋ-e cho-∅

Mirpung-ERG rice.meal-ABS

'Miprung ate a meal' : 110  (Example marking the object of a transitive verb)

Ergative Case
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The ergative case, which is used to identify the subject of a transitive verb, is marked with the suffix -e. If the ergative case-marked directly follows the vowels /e/, /a/, or /ʌ/, it has the form allomorph -i. Note that the Tanahu dialect of Magar differs from the Syangja dialect in that Tanahu only marks agents as ergative in the past-perfective aspect[2]: 35 . The following examples from the Syangja dialect of Magar shows the ergative case over all tense-aspect combinations:[2]

hari-e

Hari-ERG

beskaŋ

bread

jya-a

eat-PST

hari-e beskaŋ jya-a

Hari-ERG bread eat-PST

'Hari ate the bread.': 113 

hari-e

Hari-ERG

beskaŋ

bread

jya-mʌ-le-a

eat-NOM-IMPF-PST

hari-e beskaŋ jya-mʌ-le-a

Hari-ERG bread eat-NOM-IMPF-PST

'Hari was eating bread.': 113 

hari-e

Hari-ERG

beskaŋ

bread

jya-le

eat-IMPF

hari-e beskaŋ jya-le

Hari-ERG bread eat-IMPF

'Hari eats bread.': 113 

hari-e

Hari-ERG

beskaŋ

bread

jya-mʌ-le

eat-NOM-IMPF

hari-e beskaŋ jya-mʌ-le

Hari-ERG bread eat-NOM-IMPF

'Hari is eating bread.': 113 

Dative Case

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The dative case, which is used to indicate the noun to which an object is given, is marked with the suffix -ke. The following examples show the dative case markers occuring in clauses with ditransitive verbs:[2]

ram-e

Ram-ERG

ŋa-o

IS_GEN

wa-ke

chicken-DAT

charo

chicken.food

kas-aŋ

feed

ram-e ŋa-o wa-ke charo kas-aŋ

Ram-ERG IS_GEN chicken-DAT chicken.food feed

'Ram fed my chicken chicken feed.': 116 

ŋa-e

IS-ERG

chiniŋ

today

naŋ-ko-ke

2-P-DAT

hi

what

ahan

story

set-le-aŋ

tell-IMPF-1PRO

ŋa-e chiniŋ naŋ-ko-ke hi ahan set-le-aŋ

IS-ERG today 2-P-DAT what story tell-IMPF-1PRO

'Today, what story will I tell you?': 116 

Genitive Case

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The genitive case indicates the relationship of possession. In the singular case, the genitive case is marked with the suffix -o as in the following example:

cyu-o

dog-GEN

mi-talu

POSS-head

sisi-aŋ

bottle-LOC

hahɦ-a

lock-PST

cyu-o mi-talu sisi-aŋ hahɦ-a

dog-GEN POSS-head bottle-LOC lock-PST

'The dog's head got stuck in the bottle.': 122  In the plural case, the genitive case is marked with the suffix -uŋ, as shown in the following example:

rokotyak-ko-uŋ

frog-PL-GEN

mi-ja-ko

POSS-child-PL

dɦari

also

thuprai

many

raɦ-a

come-PST

rokotyak-ko-uŋ mi-ja-ko dɦari thuprai raɦ-a

frog-PL-GEN POSS-child-PL also many come-PST

'The frogs' many children also came': 122 

Syntax

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Basic Word Order

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Magar makes use of a subject-object-verb word order[2]: 35 , as shown in the example below.[2]

S

ram-ke

Ram

O

ŋɦet-ke

cow

V

kas-ak-a

feed

S O V

ram-ke ŋɦet-ke kas-ak-a

Ram cow feed

“Ram feed the cow”: 382 

Word Order in Smaller Constituents

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Possessee and Possessor Structures
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When expressing possession in Magar, the possessor comes after the possessee.

Possessee

ruma-o

Ruma-GEN

Possessor

mi-ja

POSS-child

Possessee Possessor

ruma-o mi-ja

Ruma-GEN POSS-child

"Ruma's child": 101 

Adposition and Noun Phrase Structures
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As seen in the example below, in Magar the adposition comes after the noun phrase.

Noun.Phrase

dɦodɦara

log

Adposition

dɦem-aŋ

up-locative

Noun.Phrase Adposition

dɦodɦara dɦem-aŋ

log up-locative

"atop the log": 382 

Determiner and Noun Phrase Structures
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In Magar, the determiner precedes the noun phrase.

Determiner

i-se

P.DEM-DEF

Noun.Phrase

bɦormi-ko

men-PL

Determiner Noun.Phrase

i-se bɦormi-ko

P.DEM-DEF men-PL

"these men": 285 

Yes/No Question Particle and Clause Structures
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For yes/no questions in Magar, the question particle comes after the clause.

Clause

cho

meal

-

tʌyar

ready

-

chanɦ-a

become-PST

Question.Particle

ma-chanɦ-a

NEG-become-PST

Clause - - Question.Particle

cho tʌyar chanɦ-a ma-chanɦ-a

meal ready become-PST NEG-become-PST

"Is the meal ready, or not?’: 477 

References

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  1. ^ a b Eastern Magar at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
    Western Magar at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u "A descriptive grammar of two Magar dialects of Nepal: Tanahu and Syangja Magar - ProQuest". search.proquest.com. ProQuest 304451693. Retrieved 2019-03-02.
  3. ^ "Magar, Western". Ethnologue. Retrieved 2019-05-07.
  4. ^ B. K. Rana. "Mother Tongue Education for Social Inclusion and Conflict Resolution". Appeals, News and Views from Endangered Communities. Foundation for Endangered Languages. Archived from the original on 2003-02-16. Retrieved 2007-09-12.
  5. ^ http://www.thlib.org/static/reprints/contributions/CNAS_20_02_02.pdf