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Albanian paganism

Albanian paganism comprises the pagan customs, beliefs, rituals, myths and legends of the Albanian people. The elements of Albanian mythology are of ancient Paleo-Balkanic origin and almost all of them are pagan.[3] Ancient paganism persisted among Albanians, and especially within the inaccessible and deep interior[4] – where Albanian folklore evolved over the centuries in a relatively isolated tribal culture and society[5] – it has continued to persist, or at most it was partially transformed by the Christian, Muslim and Marxist beliefs that were either to be introduced by choice or imposed by force.[4] Albanian traditions have been orally transmitted down the generations,[6] well surviving into the 21st century in the mountainous regions of Albania, Kosovo, western North Macedonia, Montenegro and South Serbia and among the Arbëreshë in Italy, the Arvanites in Greece, and the Arbanasi in Croatia.[7]

The symbol of the Sun often combined with the crescent Moon is commonly found in a variety of contexts of Albanian folk art, including traditional tattooing of northern tribes, grave art, jewellery and house carvings.[1] The worship of the Sun and the Moon is the earliest attested cult of the Albanians.[2]

The old beliefs in sun and moon, light and darkness, sky and earth, fire and hearth, death and rebirth, birds and serpents, mountains and water springs, stones and caves, sacrifice, and fate are some of the pagan beliefs among Albanians.[8] The earliest attested Albanian cult is the worship of the sun and the moon.[2] The earth cult and sky cult have a special place, and an important role is played by fire, which is considered a living, sacred or divine element used for rituals, sacrificial offerings and purification.[9] Fire worship is associated with the cult of the sun, the cult of the hearth and the cult of fertility in agriculture and animal husbandry.[10] Besa is a common practice in Albanian culture, consisting of an oath taken by sun, by moon, by sky, by earth, by fire, by stone, by mountain, by water and by snake, which are all considered sacred objects.[11] Associated with human life, bees are highly revered by Albanians.[12] The eagle is the animal totem of all Albanians, associated with freedom and heroism.[12] A widespread folk symbol is the serpent, a totem of the Albanians associated with earth, water, sun, hearth and ancestor cults, as well as destiny, good fortune and fertility.[13] The sun, the moon, the star, the eagle, the serpent, and the bee, often appear in Albanian legends and folk art.[14] The Albanian traditional customary law – the Kanun – contains several customary concepts that have their origins in pagan beliefs, including in particular the ancestor worship, animism and totemism, which have been preserved since pre-Christian times.[15][16][17]

In Albanian mythology, the physical phenomena, elements and objects are attributed to supernatural beings. The characters in Albanian tales, legends and myths include humans, deities, demigods, monsters, as well as supernatural beings in the shapes of men, animals and plants.[18] The deities are generally not persons, but animistic personifications of nature.[19] Albanian myths and legends are organized around the dualistic struggle between good and evil,[20] the most famous representation of which is the legendary battle between drangue and kulshedra,[21] a conflict that symbolises the cyclic return in the watery and chthonian world of death, accomplishing the cosmic renewal of rebirth. The weavers of destiny, ora or fatí, control the order of the universe and enforce its laws.[22] A very common motif in Albanian folk narrative is metamorphosis: men morph into deer, wolves, and owls, while women morph into stoats, cuckoos, and turtles.[21] Resulted from the Albanian tribal culture and folklore and permeated by Albanian pagan beliefs and ancient mythology, the Kângë Kreshnikësh ("Songs of Heroes") constitute the most important legendary cycle of the Albanian epic poetry, based on the hero cult.[23] Hero's bravery and self-sacrifice, as well as love of life and hope for a bright future play a central role in Albanian tales.[18]

Documentation

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Main article: Albanian folklore

Albanian tradition has been handed down orally across generations.[24] Albanian myths and legends have been written down since the period of the oldest Albanian literary works (from the 15th century onwards),[25] but the systematic collection of Albanian folklore material began only in the 19th century.[26]

Origin

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See also: Proto-Indo-European mythology, Paleo-Balkan mythology, and Illyrian mythology

The elements of Albanian mythology are of Paleo-Balkanic origin and almost all of them are pagan.[3] Ancient Illyrian religion is considered to be one of the sources from which Albanian legend and folklore evolved,[27][28][29] reflecting a number of parallels with Ancient Greek and Roman mythologies.[30] Albanian legend also shows similarities with neighbouring Indo-European traditions, such as the oral epics with the South Slavs and the folk tales of the Greeks.[31]

Albanian mythology inherited the Indo-European narrative epic genre about past warriors (Kângë Kreshnikësh), a tradition shared with early Greece, classical India, early medieval England, medieval Germany and South Slavs.[32] Albanian folk beliefs and mythology also retained the typical Indo-European tradition of the deities located on the highest and most inaccessible mountains (Mount Tomor),[33] the sky, lightning, weather and fire deities (Zojz, Shurdh, Verbt, *En/*Enj, Vatër, Nëna e Vatrës),[34][35] the "Daughter of the Sun and Moon" legend (E Bija e Hënës dhe e Diellit),[36] the "serpent-slaying" and "fire in water" myths (Drangue and Kulshedra), the Fates and Destiny goddesses (Zana, Ora, Fatí, Mira)[37] the Divine twins (Muji and Halili),[38][39] and the guard of the gates of the Underworld (the three-headed dog who never sleeps).[40]

History

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The absence of any single and specific theonymic root for the "earth" in the various branches of the Indo-European language family, might be due to the predominance held by earth mother goddess cults already extant and profoundly rooted among Pre-Indo-European-speaking peoples encountered by incoming Indo-European-speaking peoples.[41] The confrontation between the belief systems of Pre-Indo-European populations—who favored 'Mother Earth Cults' comprising earthly beliefs, female deities and priesthood—and of Indo-European populations who favored 'Father Heaven Cults' comprising celestial beliefs, male deities and priesthood, might be reflected in the dichotomy of matriarchy and patriarchy that emerges from the two types of female warriors/active characters in Albanian epic poetry, in particular in the Kângë Kreshnikësh.[note 1][42] Also in Albanian mythology and folklore the symbolization of the supremacy of the deity of the sky over that of the underworld is shown by the victory of celestial divine heroes like the drangue, E Bija e Hënës dhe e Diellit ("the Daughter of the Moon and the Sun", who is described as the lightning of the sky[43]), or other characters marked in their bodies by the symbols of celestial objects, over the kulshedra (often described as an earthly/chthonic deity or demon).[44] On the other hand, the Albanian belief system has preserved also the importance of the cult of the earth, Dheu.[45][46]

 
The cult practiced by the Albanians on Mount Tomorr in central Albania is considered as a continuation of the ancient sky-god worship.

The Albanian sky and lightning god, Zojz, is considered to have been worshiped by Illyrians in ancient times.[47] Albanian Zojz is the clear equivalent and cognate of Messapic Zis and Ancient Greek Zeus, the continuations of the Proto-Indo-European *Di̯ḗu̯s 'sky god'.[48][49] In the pre-Christian pagan period the term Zot from Proto-Albanian: *dźie̅u ̊ a(t)t- was presumably used in Albanian to refer to the sky father/god/lord, father-god, heavenly father (the Indo-European father daylight-sky-god).[50] After the first access of the ancestors of the Albanians to the Christian religion in antiquity the term Zot has been used for God, the Father and the Son (Christ).[50][51] The worship and practices associated to the Indo-European sky and lighning deity have been preserved by Albanians until the 20th century, and in some forms still continue today,[52] such as in Albanian oath swearings,[53] and in the renowned cult at Mount Tomorr in central Albania, where animals are sacrificed to the deity by Albanians of different religious beliefs even in the present-days.[54]

The earliest figurative representations that accurately mirror the Albanian lamentation of the dead—gjâma—appear on Dardanian funerary stelae of classical antiquity.[55] In the context of religious perceptions, historical sources confirm the relations between the Greco-Roman religious ethics and the Albanian customary laws. These relations can be seen during the rule of the Illyrian emperors, such as Aurelian who introduced the cult of the Sun; Diocletian who stabilized the empire and ensured its continuation through the institution of the Tetrarchy; Constantine the Great who issued the Edict of Toleration for the Christianized population and who summoned the First Council of Nicaea involving many clercs from Illyricum; Justinian who issued the Corpus Juris Civilis and sought to create an Illyrian Church, building Justiniana Prima and Justiniana Secunda, which was intended to become the centre of Byzantine administration.[56]

Prehistoric Illyrian symbols used on funeral monuments of the pre-Roman period have been used also in Roman times and continued into late antiquity in the broad Illyrian territory. The same motifs were kept with identical cultural-religious symbolism on various monuments of the early medieval culture of the Albanians. They appear also on later funerary monuments, including the medieval tombstones (stećci) in Bosnia and Herzegovina and the burial monuments used until recently in northern Albania, Kosovo, Montenegro, southern Serbia and northern North Macedonia. Such motifs are particularly related to the ancient cults of the Sun and Moon, survived until recently among northern Albanians.[57]

Among the Illyrians of early Albania the Sun was a widespread symbol. The spread of a Sun cult and the persistence of Sun motifs into the Roman period and later are considered to have been the product of the Illyrian culture. In Christian iconography the symbol of the Sun is associated with immortality and a right to rule. The pagan cult of the Sun was almost identical to the Christian cult in the first centuries of Christianity. Varieties of the symbols of the Sun that Christian orders brought in the region found in the Albanian highlands sympathetic supporters, enriching the body of their symbols with new material.[58]

The historical-linguistic determination of the Albanian Christian terminology provides evidence that Albanians have already joined the process of conversion to Christianity in the Balkans since the late antiquity (4th–5th centuries AD). The earliest church lexicon is mainly of Late Latin or Ecclesiastical Latin origin and, to a large extent, of native origin, which leads to the conclusion that the Christianisation of the Albanians occurred under the Latin-based liturgy and ecclesiastical order of the Holy See. Also according to Church documents, the territories that coincide with the present-day Albanian-speaking compact area had remained under the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome and used Latin as official language at least until the first half of the 8th century.[59]

At the time of the South Slavic incursion and the threat of ethnic turbulence in the Albanian-inhabited regions, the Christianization of the Albanians had already been completed and it had apparently developed for Albanians as a further identity-forming feature alongside the ethnic-linguistic unity.[60] Church administration, which was controlled by a thick network of Roman bishoprics, collapsed with the arrival of the Slavs. Between the early 7th century and the late 9th century the interior areas of the Balkans were deprived of church administration, and Christianity might have survived only as a popular tradition on a reduced degree.[61] Some Albanians living in the mountains, who were only partially affected by Romanization, probably sank back into the Classic Paganism.[62]

The reorganization of the Church as a cult institution in the region took a considerable amount of time.[63] The Balkans were brought back into the Christian orbit only after the recovery of the Byzantine Empire and through the activity of Byzantine missionaries.[61] The earliest church vocabulary of Middle Greek origin in Albanian dates to the 8th–9th centuries, at the time of the Byzantine Iconoclasm, which was started by the Byzantine Emperor Leo III the Isaurian.[64] In 726 Leo III established de jure the jurisdiction of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople over the Balkans, as the Church and the State established an institution. The Eastern Church expanded its influence in the area along with the social and political developments. Between the 7th and 12th centuries a powerful network of cult institutions were revived completely covering the ecclesiastical administration of the entire present-day Albanian-speaking compact area. In particular an important role was played by the Theme of Dyrrhachium and the Archdiocese of Ohrid.[65] Survived through the centuries, the Christian belief among Albanians became an important cultural element in their ethnic identity. Indeed, the lack of Old Church Slavonic terms in Albanian Christian terminology shows that the missionary activities during the Christianization of the Slavs did not involve Albanian-speakers.[66] In a text compiled around the beginning of the 11th century in the Old Bulgarian language, the Albanians are mentioned for the first time with their old ethnonym Arbanasi as half-believers, a term which for Eastern Orthodox Christian Bulgarians meant Catholic Christian.[67] The Great Schism of 1054 involved Albania separating the region between Catholic Christianity in the north and Orthodox Christianity in the south.[68]

Islam was first introduced to Albania in the 15th century after the Ottoman conquest of the area. In Ottoman times, often to escape higher taxes levied on Christian subjects, the majority of Albanians became Muslims. However one part retained Christian and pre-Christian beliefs.[69] In the 16th century the Albanians are firstly mentioned as worshippers of the Sun and the Moon.[2] British poet Lord Byron (1788–1824), describing the Albanian religious belief, reported that "The Greeks hardly regard them as Christians, or the Turks as Muslims; and in fact they are a mixture of both, and sometimes neither."[69] In Ottoman times education in the Albanian language was forbidden. The folk storytellers have played an important role in preserving Albanian folklore.[70] The lack of schools was compensated by the folk creativity, molding generations of Albanians with their forefathers' wisdom and experience and protecting them from assimilation processes.[71]

Between the 16th and 18th centuries, in Albania arrived also the Bektashi Sufi order[72] which spread widely among Albanians because of its traditional tolerance and regard for different religions, practices and beliefs and because it allowed itself to be a vehicle for the expression of Crypto-Christian, Christian and pre-Christian pagan beliefs and rituals.[73][74][75] Bektashism is a Muslim dervish order (tariqat) thought to have originated in the 13th century in a frontier region of Anatolia, where Christianity, Islam and paganism coexisted, allowing the incorporation of comparable pagan and non-Muslim beliefs into popular Islam. It facilitated the conversion process to the new Muslims and became the official order of the Janissaries.[76][77] After the ban of all the Sufi orders in Turkey in 1925, the Bektashi Order established its headquarters in Tirana.[69] Since its founding in 1912, Albania has been a secular state, becoming atheist during the Communist regime, and returning secular after the fall of the regime.

Albanian folklore evolved over the centuries in a relative isolated tribal culture and society,[5] and although several changes occurred in the Albanian belief system, an ancient substratum of pre-Christian beliefs has survived until today.[78][3][79] Ancient paganism persisted among Albanians, and within the inaccessible and deep interior it has continued to persist, or at most it was partially transformed by the Christian, Muslim and Marxist beliefs that were either to be introduced by choice or imposed by force.[4] Folk tales, myths and legends have been orally transmitted down the generations and are still very much alive in the mountainous regions of Albania, Kosovo and western North Macedonia, among the Arbëreshë in Italy and the Arvanites in Greece, and the Arbanasi in Croatia.[80]

Deities, divinities, and mythical figures

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Nature deities and divinities

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Concepts

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Mythical beings

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Heroic characters

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The Albanian terms for "hero" are trim (female: trimneshë), kreshnik or hero (female: heroinë). Some of the main heroes of the Albanian epic songs, legends and myths are:

  • Demigods
    • Drangue: semi-human winged warrior who fights the kulshedra; his most powerful weapons are lightning-swords and thunderbolts, but he also uses meteoric stones, piles of trees and rocks;
    • E Bija e Hënës dhe e Diellit: "the Daughter of the Moon and the Sun", who is described as the lightning of the sky (Albanian: pika e qiellit) which falls everywhere from heaven on the mountains and the valleys and strikes pride and evil. She is sometimes described as bearing a star on her forehead and a moon on her chest. She fights the kulshedra;
  • Humans

Heroic motifs

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The Albanian heroic songs are substantially permeated by the concepts contained in the Kanun, a code of Albanian oral customary laws: honor, considered as the highest ideal in Albanian society; shame and dishonor, regarded as worse than death; besa and loyalty, gjakmarrja.[197][144]

Another characteristic of Albanian heroic songs are weapons. Their importance and the love which the heroes have for them are carefully represented in the songs, while they are rarely described physically. A common feature appearing in these songs is the desire for fame and glory, which is related to the courage of a person.[198]

Rituals

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Festivals

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Albanian woman decorated for the Illyrian carnivals, during the Albanian spring festival of the Sharr Mountains

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ In Albanian epics there are on the one hand female characters who play an active role in the quest and the decisions that affect the whole tribe, on the other hand those who undergo a masculinization process as a condition to be able to participate actively in the fights according to the principles of the Kanun.[42]

References

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  1. ^ Galaty et al. 2013, pp. 155–157; Tirta 2004, pp. 68–82; Elsie 2001, pp. 181, 244; Poghirc 1987, p. 178; Durham 1928a, p. 51; Durham 1928b, pp. 120–125.
  2. ^ a b c Elsie, Robert (ed.). "1534. Sebastian Franck: Albania: A Mighty Province of Europe". Texts and Documents of Albanian History.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Bonnefoy 1993, p. 253.
  4. ^ a b c Norris 1993, p. 34.
  5. ^ a b Elsie 2001, pp. vii–viii.
  6. ^ Elsie 1994, p. i; Elsie 2001b, p. ix; Sokoli 2013, pp. 182–184.
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  8. ^ Egro 2003, p. 35; Tirta 2004, pp. 87–110, 176, 410; Doja 2005, pp. 449–462; Stipčević 2009, pp. 505–507; Sokoli 2013, p. 181; Galaty et al. 2013, p. 161; Lajçi 2019, p. 29.
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Bibliography

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Further reading

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