User:Tanay barisha/Linguistics and Languages

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Linguistics
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Outline History Index
General linguistics Diachronic Lexicography Morphology Phonology Pragmatics Semantics Syntax Syntax–semantics interface Typology
Applied linguistics Acquisition Anthropological Applied Computational Conversation analysis Corpus linguistics Discourse analysis Distance Documentation Ethnography of communication Ethnomethodology Forensic History of linguistics Interlinguistics Neurolinguistics Philology Philosophy of language Phonetics Psycholinguistics Sociolinguistics Text Translating and interpreting Writing systems
Theoretical frameworks Formalist Constituency Dependency Distributionalism Generative Glossematics Functional Cognitive Construction grammar Functional discourse grammar Grammaticalization Interactional linguistics Prague school Systemic functional Usage-based Structuralism
Topics Autonomy of syntax Compositionality Conservative/innovative forms Descriptivism Etymology Iconicity Internet linguistics LGBT linguistics Origin of language Orthography Philosophy of linguistics Prescriptivism Second-language acquisition Theory of language
Portal
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Linguistic typology
Morphological
Analytic Isolating Synthetic Fusional Agglutinative Polysynthetic Oligosynthetic
Morphosyntactic
Alignment Nominative–accusative Marked nominative Ergative–absolutive Split ergative Symmetrical voice Active–stative Tripartite Nominative–absolutive Direct-inverse Ditransitive/Monotransitive Secundative Indirective Zero-marking Dependent-marking Double-marking Head-marking Null-subject Syntactic pivot Theta role
Word order
VO languages Subject–verb–object Verb–subject–object Verb–object–subject OV languages Subject–object–verb Object–subject–verb Object–verb–subject V1 word order V2 word order OS word order Free word order Time–manner–place Place–manner–time
Lexicon
Color terms Numerals
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Sociolinguistics
Key concepts
Code-switching Language change Language ideology Language planning Multilingualism Prestige Variation
Areas of study
Accent Bilingual pun Dialect Diglossia Homophonic translation Macaronic language Phono-semantic matching Register Discourse analysis Language varieties Linguistic description Loanword Pragmatics Pidgin Soramimi
People
Sociolinguists
Related fields
Applied linguistics Historical linguistics Linguistic anthropology Sociocultural linguistics Sociology of language
Category Linguistics portal
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Grammatical features
Related to nouns Animacy Case Dative construction Dative shift Quirky subject Nominative Comitative Instrumental Classifier Measure word Construct state Countability Count noun Mass noun Collective noun Definiteness Gender Genitive construction Possession Suffixaufnahme (case stacking) Noun class Number Singular Dual Plural Singulative-Collective-Plurative Specificity Universal grinder
Related to verbs Associated motion Clusivity Conjugation Evidentiality Modality Person Telicity Mirativity Tense–aspect–mood Grammatical aspect Lexical aspect (Aktionsart) Mood Tense Voice
General features Affect Boundedness Comparison (degree) Egophoricity Pluractionality (verbal number) Honorifics (politeness) Polarity Reciprocity Reflexive pronoun Reflexive verb
Syntax relationships Argument Transitivity Valency Branching Serial verb construction Traditional grammar Predicate Subject Object Adjunct Predicative
Semantics Contrast Mirativity Thematic relation Agent Patient Topic and Comment Focus Volition Veridicality
Phenomena Agreement Polypersonal agreement Declension Empty category Incorporation Inflection Markedness
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Articulation

Articulatory phonetics – Coarticulation – International Phonetic Alphabet

Place

Labial

Coronal

Active place	Apical Laminal Subapical

Velopharyngeal

Other

Bidental

Manner

Obstruent	Plosive Affricate Fricative Sibilant
Sonorant	Nasal Vowel Approximant Semivowel Vibrant Tap/flap Trill
Liquid Rhotic Lateral Occlusive Continuant

Airstream

Secondary
articulation

Tongue shape

Sulcal
Domed

Voice

Phonation

Subfields
Computational Lexical (lexis, lexicology) Statistical Structural
Topics
Analysis Compositionality Context (language use) Prototype theory Force dynamics Semantic feature Semantic gap Theory of descriptions
Analysis
Latent Computational Machine-learning
Applications
Semantic file system Semantic desktop Semantic matching Semantic parsing Semantic similarity Semantic query Semantic Web Semantic wiki

Indo-European topics
Part of a series on

Languages List of Indo-European languages Extant Albanoid Albanian Armenian Balto-Slavic Baltic Slavic Celtic Germanic Hellenic Greek Kurdish Indo-Iranian Indo-Aryan Iranian Nuristani Italic Romance Extinct Anatolian Tocharian Paleo-Balkan Dacian Illyrian Liburnian Messapic Mysian Paeonian Phrygian Thracian Reconstructed Proto-Indo-European language Phonology: Sound laws, Accent, Ablaut Hypothetical Balkanic Daco-Thracian Graeco-Albanian Graeco-Armenian Graeco-Aryan Graeco-Phrygian Indo-Hittite Italo-Celtic Thraco-Illyrian Grammar Vocabulary Root Verbs Nouns Pronouns Numerals Particles Other Proto-Albanian Proto-Anatolian Proto-Armenian Proto-Germanic (Proto-Norse) Proto-Italo-Celtic (Proto-Celtic · Proto-Italic) Proto-Greek Proto-Balto-Slavic (Proto-Slavic · Proto-Baltic) Proto-Indo-Iranian (Proto-Iranian)
Philology Hittite inscriptions Hieroglyphic Luwian Linear B Rigveda Avesta Homer Behistun Gaulish epigraphy Latin epigraphy Runic epigraphy Ogham Gothic Bible Bible translations into Armenian Tocharian script Old Irish glosses
Origins Homeland Proto-Indo-Europeans Society Religion Mainstream Kurgan hypothesis Indo-European migrations Eurasian nomads Alternative and fringe Anatolian hypothesis Armenian hypothesis Beech argument Indigenous Aryanism Baltic homeland Paleolithic continuity theory
Archaeology Chalcolithic (Copper Age) Pontic Steppe Domestication of the horse Kurgan Kurgan stelae Kurgan culture Steppe cultures Bug–Dniester Sredny Stog Dnieper–Donets Samara Khvalynsk Yamnaya Mikhaylovka culture Novotitarovskaya culture Caucasus Maykop East Asia Afanasievo Eastern Europe Usatovo Cernavodă Cucuteni Northern Europe Corded ware Baden Middle Dnieper Bronze Age Pontic Steppe Chariot Yamnaya Catacomb Multi-cordoned ware Poltavka Srubnaya Northern/Eastern Steppe Abashevo culture Andronovo Sintashta Europe Globular Amphora Corded ware Bell Beaker Únětice Trzciniec Nordic Bronze Age Terramare Tumulus Urnfield Lusatian South Asia BMAC Yaz Gandhara grave Iron Age Steppe Chernoles Europe Thraco-Cimmerian Hallstatt Jastorf Caucasus Colchian India Painted Grey Ware Northern Black Polished Ware
Peoples and societies Bronze Age Anatolian peoples (Hittites) Armenians Mycenaean Greeks Indo-Iranians Iron Age Indo-Aryans Indo-Aryans Iranians Iranians East Asia Wusun Yuezhi Europe Celts Gauls Celtiberians Insular Celts Cimmerians Hellenic peoples Italic peoples Germanic peoples Paleo-Balkan/Anatolia Thracians Dacians Illyrians Paeonians Phrygians Scythians Middle Ages East Asia Tocharians Europe Albanians Balts Slavs Norsemen/Medieval Scandinavians Middle Ages Indo-Aryan Medieval India Iranian Greater Iran
Religion and mythology Reconstructed Proto-Indo-European mythology Proto-Indo-Iranian paganism Ancient Iranian religion Historical Hittite Indo-Aryan Vedic Hinduism Buddhism Jainism Sikhism Iranian Persian Zoroastrianism Kurdish Yazidism Yarsanism Scythian Ossetian Others Armenian European Paleo-Balkan (Albanian · Illyrian · Thracian · Dacian) Greek Roman Celtic Irish Scottish Breton Welsh Cornish Germanic Anglo-Saxon Continental Norse Baltic Latvian Lithuanian Slavic Practices Fire sacrifice Horse sacrifice Sati Winter solstice/Yule
Indo-European studies Scholars Marija Gimbutas J. P. Mallory Institutes Copenhagen Studies in Indo-European Publications Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture The Horse, the Wheel, and Language Journal of Indo-European Studies Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch Indo-European Etymological Dictionary
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English grammar
Part of a series on

Morphology Plurals Prefixes (in English) Suffixes (frequentative)
Word types Acronyms Adjectives Adverbs (flat) Articles Coordinators Compounds Demonstratives Determiners (List here) Expletives Intensifier Interjections Interrogatives Nouns Portmanteaus Possessives Prepositions (List here) Pronouns (case · person) Subordinators Verbs
Verbs Auxiliary verbs Mood (conditional · imperative · subjunctive) Aspect (continuous · habitual · perfect) -ing Irregular verbs Modal verbs Passive voice Phrasal verbs Verb usage Transitive and intransitive verbs
Syntax Clauses (in English) Conditional sentences Copula Do-support Inversion Periphrasis Zero-marking
Orthography Abbreviations Capitalization Comma Hyphen
Variant usage African-American Vernacular English AmE and BrE grammatical differences Double negatives Grammar disputes Thou
v t e

Templates edit

Languages edit

Countries and languages lists

Countries

By languages

Official	Countries by the number of recognized official languages Arabic Chinese Dutch/Afrikaans English French German Hindustani Italian Malay Persian Portuguese Romanian Russian Spanish Tamil

Endonyms

Countries and capitals in native languages

Exonyms

Country names in various languages
- A–C
- D–I
- J–P
- Q–Z
- Cambodia
- China
- Germany
- Iceland
- India
- Indonesia
- Japan
- Korea
- Kosovo
- Myanmar
- Singapore
- Sri Lanka
- Vietnam
Languages of the European Union

Languages

By continent and subregion	Africa Americas North America Caribbean South America Asia East Asia South Asia Southeast Asia Europe Oceania Melanesia Micronesia Polynesia
By country	Official languages by country and territory Countries by the number of recognized official languages Number of languages
By population	By number of native speakers Europe By number of total speakers Languages in censuses
By language family	Language families List of Afro-Asiatic languages List of Austronesian languages List of Indo-European languages List of Mongolic languages List of Tungusic languages List of Turkic languages List of Uralic languages
Language-based geopolitical organizations	Arab League (Arabic) Dutch Language Union (Dutch) Commonwealth of Nations (English) Latin Union (Romance) Three Linguistic Spaces Francophonie (French) Community of Portuguese Language Countries Países Africanos de Língua Oficial Portuguesa (Portuguese) Hispanidad (Spanish) Organization of Turkic States (Turkic) International Organization of Turkic Culture (Turkic)
See also	Lists of languages Category:Languages

Primary language families

Africa

Afroasiatic Austronesian Khoe–Kwadi Kx'a Niger–Congo Nilo-Saharan? Tuu Mande? Songhay? Ijaw? Ubangian? Kadu?
Isolates	Bangime Hadza Jalaa Sandawe Laal? Shabo?

Eurasia
(Europe
and Asia)

Isolates

New Guinea
and the Pacific

Isolates

Australia

Arnhem/Macro-Gunwinyguan? Bunuban Darwin Region? Eastern Daly Eastern Tasmanian Garawan Iwaidjan Jarrakan Marrku–Wurrugu? Mirndi Northern Tasmanian Northeastern Tasmanian Nyulnyulan Pama–Nyungan Southern Daly? Tangkic Wagaydyic Western Daly Western Tasmanian Worrorran Yangmanic (incl. Wagiman)?
Isolates	Giimbiyu Malak-Malak (Northern Daly?) Tiwi

North
America

Algic Alsea Caddoan Chimakuan Chinookan Chumashan Comecrudan Coosan Eskaleut Iroquoian Kalapuyan Keres Maiduan Muskogean Na-Dene Palaihnihan Plateau Penutian Pomoan Salishan Shastan Siouan Tanoan Tsimshianic Utian Uto-Aztecan Wakashan Wintuan Yukian Yuman–Cochimí
Isolates	Chimariko Esselen Haida Karuk Kutenai Seri Siuslaw Takelma Timucua Tonkawa Waikuri Washo Yana Yokuts Yuchi Zuni

Mesoamerica

Chibchan Jicaquean Lencan Mayan Misumalpan Mixe–Zoque Oto-Manguean Tequistlatecan Totonacan Uto-Aztecan Xincan
Isolates	Cuitlatec Huave Tarascan/Purépecha

South
America

Isolates
(extant in 2000)

Sign
languages

Arab BANZSL Chinese Francosign Germanosign Indo-Pakistani Japanese Original Thai Swedish Tanzanian?
Isolates	See list of sign languages

See also

Families with question marks (?) are disputed or controversial.
Families in italics have no living members.
Families with more than 30 languages are in bold.

Orthographies of the world's languages

Phonologies
Orthographies
Grammars
- Adjectives
- Determiners
- Nouns
- Prepositions
- Pronouns
- Verbs

Indo-European

Germanic	Afrikaans Danish Dutch English Faroese German Icelandic Norwegian Swedish alphabet orthography West Frisian Yiddish
Celtic	Irish Scottish Gaelic Welsh Breton Cornish Kernewek Kemmyn Standard Written Form Kernowek Standard Modern Cornish Unified Cornish Manx
Romance	Aromanian Catalan French Istro-Romanian Italian Latin Phonology & ortography alphabet Portuguese Romanian Sicilian Spanish
Baltic	Latvian Lithuanian
Slavic	Belarusian Cyrillic alphabet Latin alphabet Classical orthography Bulgarian Czech Macedonian Polish alphabet orthography Russian alphabet orthography Silesian Serbo-Croatian Cyrillic alphabet Latin alphabet Montenegrin alphabet Slovak Slovene Sorbian Ukrainian Cyrillic alphabet Latin alphabet
Iranian	Avestan Kurdish Pashto Persian Tajik
Indo-Aryan	Bengali Chakma Gujarati Gurmukhi Hindustani Urdu Maldivian Thaana Marathi Odia Romani
other	Albanian Armenian Greek

other European

other East Asian

other Native American

Creole

Constructed

Esperanto

v t e Phonologies of the world's languages
Phonologies Orthographies Grammars Adjectives Determiners Nouns Prepositions Pronouns Verbs
A–E	Abkhaz Acehnese Adyghe Afrikaans American Sign Language Arabic Modern Standard Egyptian Hejazi Levantine Tunisian Avestan Belarusian Bengali Bulgarian Burmese Catalan Chinese Mandarin Cantonese Northern Wu Old Historical Chukchi Cornish Czech Danish Dutch Standard Orsmaal-Gussenhoven dialect English Australian General American New Zealand Received Pronunciation Regional North American White South African Standard Canadian Old Middle Esperanto Estonian
F–L	Faroese Finnish French Parisian Quebec Galician German Standard Bernese Greek Standard Modern Ancient Koine Greenlandic Gujarati Hawaiian Hebrew (Modern) Hindustani Hungarian Icelandic Ingrian Inuit Irish Italian Japanese Kiowa Konkani Korean Kurdish Kyrgyz Latgalian Latin Latvian Limburgish Maastrichtian Lithuanian Luxembourgish
M–S	Macedonian Malay Maldivian Māori Marathi Massachusett Medumba Navajo Nepali Norwegian Occitan Ojibwe Old Saxon Oromo Ottawa Pashto Persian Polish Portuguese Proto-Indo-European Ripuarian Colognian Kerkrade dialect Romanian Russian Sardinian Scots Scottish Gaelic Serbo-Croatian Slovak Slovene Somali Sotho Spanish Dialects and varieties Swedish
T–Z	Tagalog Tamil Taos Turkish Ubykh Ukrainian Uyghur Vietnamese Welsh West Frisian Yiddish Zuni

v t e Varieties of languages
Albanian Arabic Aragonese Armenian Aromanian Azerbaijani Basque Bengali Bulgarian Catalan Chinese Danish Dutch English French Georgian German Greek Hindi Japanese Korean Macedonian Malay Maltese Norwegian Pashto Persian Polish Portuguese Punjabi Romani Romanian Russian Serbo-Croatian Slovene Spanish Swedish Turkish Ukrainian Urdu Yiddish

v t e Writing systems
Index of language articles
Overview	Language History of writing History of the alphabet Graphemes Scripts in Unicode
Lists	Writing systems Languages by writing system / by first written account Ancient languages corpuses by size Undeciphered writing systems Creators of writing systems
Types	Abjads Abugidas Alphabets Featural Ideogrammic Logographic Numeral Phonogrammic Pictographic Semi-syllabaries Shorthand Syllabaries
Current examples	Arabic Canadian syllabics Chinese Devanagari Hangul Kana Latin Mongolian
Related topics	In Africa In Southeast Asia

Types of writing systems

Overview	History of writing Grapheme Hieroglyph
Lists	Writing systems undeciphered inventors constructed Languages by writing system / by first written accounts

Types

Abjads

Numerals

Aramaic
- Hatran
Arabic
- Elifba
Egyptian hieroglyphs
Elymaic
Hebrew
- Ashuri
- Cursive
- Rashi
- Solitreo
Tifinagh
Mandaic
Manichaean
Nabataean
Ancient North Arabian
Pahlavi
- Book
- Inscriptional
- Inscriptional Parthian
- Psalter
Pegon
Phoenician
- Paleo-Hebrew
Pitman shorthand
Proto-Sinaitic
Punic
Samaritan
South Arabian
- Zabur
- Musnad
Sogdian
Syriac
- ʾEsṭrangēlā
- Serṭā
- Maḏnḥāyā
Teeline Shorthand
Ugaritic

Abugidas

Brahmic

Northern

Bengali–Assamese
Bhaiksuki
Brahmi script
Devanagari
Dogri
Gujarati
Gupta
Gurmukhi
Kaithi
Kalinga
Khema
Khojki
Khudabadi
Laṇḍā
Lepcha
Mahajani
Marchen
Meitei
Modi
Multani
Nagari
Nandinagari
Nepalese scripts
- Bhujimol
- Golmol
- Himmol
- Kummol
- Kvemmol
- Pachumol
- Pracalit
- Ranjana
- Tamyig
- Tirhuta
- Limbu
- Litumol
Odia
- Karani
ʼPhags-pa
Sharada
Siddhaṃ
Soyombo
Sylheti Nagri
Takri
Tibetan
- Uchen
- Umê
Tocharian
Zanabazar square

Southern

Ahom
Balinese
Batak
Baybayin
Bhattiprolu
Buda
Buhid
Chakma
Cham
Fakkham
Grantha
Goykanadi
Hanunoo
Javanese
Kadamba
Kannada
Karen
Kawi
Khmer
- Khom Thai
Kulitan
Lanna
Langdi
Lao
Leke
Lontara
- Bilang-bilang
Makasar
Malayalam
Old Maldivian
- Dhives Akuru
- Eveyla Akuru
Mon–Burmese
Pallava
Pyu
Saurashtra
Shan
Sinhala
Sukhothai
Sundanese
- Old Sundanese
Tagbanwa
Tai Le
New Tai Lue
Tai Noi
Tai Tham
Tai Viet
Lai Tay
Tamil
Tamil-Brahmi
Tanchangya
Telugu
Thai
Tigalari
Ulu scripts
- Incung
- Lampung
- Lembak
- Ogan
- Pasemah
- Rejang
- Serawai
Vatteluttu
- Kolezhuthu
- Malayanma

Others

Bharati
Boyd's syllabic shorthand
Canadian syllabics
- Blackfoot
- Déné syllabics
Dham
Fox I
Geʽez
Gunjala Gondi
Japanese Braille
Sarati
Jenticha
Kharosthi
Mandombe
Masaram Gondi
Meroitic
Miao
Mwangwego
Pahawh Hmong
Sorang Sompeng
Tengwar
Thaana
Thomas Natural Shorthand
Warang Citi
Mwangwego
Rma

Alphabets

Linear

Adlam
Ariyaka
Armenian
Avestan
- Pazend
Avoiuli
Bassa Vah
Carian
Caucasian Albanian
Cirth
Coelbren
Coorgi–Cox alphabet
Coptic
Cyrillic
- Bosnian
- Early
Deseret
Duployan shorthand
- Chinook
Eclectic shorthand
Elbasan
Enochian
Etruscan
Evenki
Formosan
Fox II
Fraser
Gabelsberger shorthand
Gadabuursi
Garay alphabet
Georgian
- Asomtavruli
- Nuskhuri
- Mkhedruli
Veso Bey
Glagolitic
Gothic
Gregg shorthand
Greek (Archaic)
Greco-Iberian alphabet
Hangul
Hanifi
Jenticha
Kaddare
Kayah Li
Klingon
Latin
- Beneventan
- Blackletter
- Carolingian minuscule
- Fraktur
- Gaelic
- Insular
- Interlac
- IPA
- Kurrent
- Merovingian
- Sigla
- Sütterlin
- Tironian notes
- Visigothic
Luo
Lycian
Lydian
Manchu
Medefaidrin
Molodtsov
Mongolian
Mru
Mundari Bani
N'Ko
Ogham
Oirat
Ol Chiki
Old Hungarian
Old Italic
Old Permic
Orkhon
Old Uyghur
Ol Onal
Osage
Osmanya
Pau Cin Hau
Phrygian
Pisidian
Runic
- Anglo-Saxon
- Cipher
- Dalecarlian
- Elder Futhark
- Younger Futhark
- Gothic
- Marcomannic
- Medieval
- Staveless
Shavian
Sidetic
Sorang Sompeng
Sunuwar
Tifinagh
Todhri
Tolong Siki
Vagindra
Vellara
Visible Speech
Vithkuqi
Wancho
Warang Citi
Yezidi
Zaghawa

Non-linear

Ideograms
Adinkra Aztec Blissymbols Dongba Ersu Shaba Emoji Isotype Kaidā Miꞌkmaw Mixtec New Epoch Notation Painting Nsibidi Ojibwe Hieroglyphs Olmec Siglas poveiras Testerian Yerkish Zapotec

Logograms

Chinese family of scripts

Chinese characters	Simplified Traditional Oracle bone script Bronze scripts Seal script large small bird-worm Hanja Kanji Chữ Nôm Sawndip Bowen
Chinese-influenced	Jurchen Khitan large script Sui Tangut

Cuneiform

Other logosyllabic

Logoconsonantal

Numerals

Other

Sitelen Pona

Semi-syllabaries

Full	Linear Elamite Celtiberian Northeastern Iberian Southeastern Iberian Khom Dunging
Redundant	Espanca script Pahawh Hmong Khitan small script Southwest Paleohispanic Bopomofo Quốc Âm Tân Tự

Sign languages
ASLwrite SignWriting si5s Stokoe notation

Syllabaries
Afaka Bamum Bété Byblos Canadian Aboriginal Cherokee Cypriot Cypro-Minoan Ditema tsa Dinoko Eskayan Geba Great Lakes Algonquian Iban Idu Kana Hiragana Katakana Man'yōgana Hentaigana Sōgana Jindai moji Kikakui Kpelle Linear B Linear Elamite Lisu Loma Nüshu Nwagu Aneke script Old Persian cuneiform Sumerian Vai Woleai Yi Yugtun

Braille ⠃⠗⠁⠊⠇⠇⠑

Braille cell

Braille scripts

French-ordered

Albanian
Azerbaijani
Cantonese
Catalan
Chinese (mainland Mandarin) (largely reassigned)
Czech
Dutch
English (Unified English)
Esperanto
French
German
Ghanaian
Guarani
Hawaiian
Hungarian
Iñupiaq
IPA
Irish
Italian
Latvian
Lithuanian
Luxembourgish (extended to 8-dot)
Maltese
Māori
Navajo
Nigerian
Philippine
Polish
Portuguese
Romanian
Samoan
Slovak
South African
Spanish
Taiwanese Mandarin (largely reassigned)
Turkish
Vietnamese
Welsh
Yugoslav
Zambian

Nordic family	Estonian Faroese Icelandic Scandinavian Danish Finnish Greenlandic Northern Sámi Norwegian Swedish
Russian lineage family i.e. Cyrillic-mediated scripts	Belarusian Bulgarian Kazakh Kyrgyz Mongolian Russian Tatar Ukrainian
Egyptian lineage family i.e. Arabic-mediated scripts	Arabic Persian Urdu (Pakistan)
Indian lineage family i.e. Bharati Braille	Devanagari (Hindi / Marathi / Nepali) Bengali (Bangla / Assamese) Gujarati Kannada Malayalam Odia Punjabi Sinhala Tamil Telugu Urdu (India)
Other scripts	Amharic Armenian Burmese Dzongkha (Bhutanese) Georgian Greek Hebrew Inuktitut (reassigned vowels) Khmer Thai and Lao (Japanese vowels) Tibetan

Reordered

Algerian Braille (obsolete)

Frequency-based

American Braille (obsolete)

Independent

Eight-dot

Symbols in braille

Braille music
Canadian currency marks
Computer Braille Code
Gardner–Salinas braille codes (science; GS8/GS6)
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)
Nemeth braille code

Braille technology

People

Organisations

Other tactile alphabets

Related topics

Sign language

Language
families^[a]

Sign languages by family

Australian
Aboriginal
(multiple families)^[c]

Western Desert	Kartutjarra Manjiljarra Ngaatjatjarra
Zendath Kesign	Meriam Western Torres Strait Islander

Arab (Ishaaric)

Iraqi–
Levantine

Iraqi
Levantine	Jordanian Lebanese Palestinian Syrian

Possible

BANZSL

Auslan Papua New Guinean (PNGSL) British (BSL) Northern Ireland (NISL) Fijian Maritime (MSL) New Zealand (NZSL) Samoan South African (SASL)
Swedish Sign	Eritrean (EriSL) Finland-Swedish (FinSSL) Portuguese (LGP) Swedish (Teckenspråk) Finnish (Viittomakieli)

Chinese Sign

Chinese (CSL/ZGS)
- Shanghai
  - Hong Kong (HKSL)
    - Macau

Chilean-Paraguayan-
Uruguayan Sign

Chilean (LSCh)
Paraguayan- Uruguayan Sign	Paraguay (LSPY) Uruguay (LSU)

Francosign

American
(ASLic)

American (ASL) Black ASL (BASL) Protactile Bolivian Burmese Yangon Mandalay Cambodian Costa Rican Dominican Jamaican Malaysian (BIM) Oneida (OSL) Panamanian Filipino (FSL) Puerto Rican (PRSL) Quebec (LSQ) Singapore (SgSL)
Indonesian (Nusantaric)	Indonesian (Bisindo) Jakarta Yogyakarta
Francophone African (Françafrosign)	Ethiopian Chadian Ghanaian Guinean Bamako (LaSiMa) Moroccan Nigerian Sierra Leonean
Mixed, Hand Talk	Oneida (OSL)
Mixed, Hoailona ʻŌlelo	Creole Hawaiʻi Sign Language (CHSL)
Mixed, French (LSF)	Greek (ΕΝΓ/ENG) Cypriot (ΚΝΓ/KNG)

Austro-
Hungarian

Russian Sign	Bulgarian (БЖЕ) Georgian Latvian (LSL) Mongolian Russian (РЖЯ)
Yugoslavic Sign	Croatian (HZJ) Kosovar Serbian Slovenian Yugoslav (YSL)

Dutch Sign

Italian Sign

Mexican Sign

Old Belgian

Bangalore-Madras
Beluchistan
Bengali
Bombay
Calcutta
Delhi
Nepali
North West Frontier Province
Punjab-Sindh

Japanese Sign

Kentish^[c]

Old Kentish
Chilmark
- Martha's Vineyard (MVSL)

Mayan (Meemul Tziij)

Highland Maya
Yucatec
- Chicán
- Nohkop
- Nohya
- Trascorral
- Cepeda Peraza

Original Thai Sign

Paget Gorman

Namibian (NSL)

Plains Sign Language

Anishinaabe Apsáalooke Arikara Chaticks si Chaticks Cheyenne Coahuilteco Dane-zaa Diné Hinono'eino Hiraacá Icāk Karankawa Liksiyu Maagiadawa Meciciya ka pekiskwakehk Nakota Ni Mii Puu Niimíipuu Niitsítapi Nųmą́khų́·ki Nʉmʉnʉʉ Omaha Palus Piipaash Ppáⁿkka Schitsu'umsh Shiwinna Sioux Taos Tickanwa•tic Tháumgá Tsuu T'ina Umatilla Wazhazhe Wichita Wíyut'a / Wíblut'e Wyandot
Mixed, American (ASL)	Oneida (OSL)
Plateau	A'aninin Kalispel Ktunaxa (ʾa·qanⱡiⱡⱡitnam) Nesilextcl'n Shuswap (Secwepemcékst) Sqeliz

Providencia–
Cayman Sign

Isolates

Afghan
Al-Sayyid Bedouin (ABSL)
Albanian (AlbSL)
Albarradas Sign Language
Alipur
Argentine (LSA)
Armenian
Caucasian (Harsneren)^[c]
Azerbaijani (AİD)
Belizean
Bhutanese
Tibetan (Bökyi lagda)
Bribri
Brunca
Cena
Chatino
Cuban (LSC)
Navajo/Diné Family
Dogon/Douentza
Ecuadorian (LSEC)
Enga
Ghandruk
Ghardaia (AJSL)
Guatemalan (Lensegua)
Guinea-Bissau
Henniker^[c]
Hawaiʻi (Hoailona ʻŌlelo)
- Creole HSL
Inuit
- Atgangmuurniq
- Greenlandic (Ussersuataarneq)
Jhankot
Jumla
Ka'apor
Kajana
Kafr Qasim
Kailge
Kata Kolok
Kenyan (KSL/LAK)
- Somali (SSL)
Keresan Pueblo (KPISL/Keresign)
Kisindo
Jamaican Country (KS/Konchri Sain)
Macedonian
Maltese (LSM)
Hausa (HSL/Magannar Hannu)
Mardin
Mauritian (MSL)
M'bour
Mehek
Miyakubo Shuwa
Burkina (Mossi)
Mount Avejaha
Mozambican
Naga
Nicaraguan (ISN)
Old Costa Rican
Ottoman (Seraglio/Harem)
Ban Khor (Pasa kidd)
Penang
Persian
Peruvian (LSP)
- Inmaculada
Qahveh Khaneh
Rennellese^[c]
Rossel Island
Rwandan (AKR/AMR)
Sandy River^[c]
Salvadoran
Sinasina
Sivia
Spanish (LSE)
Tebul
Trinidad and Tobago (TTSL)
Turkish (TİD)
Ugandan (USL)
Venezuelan (LSV/VSL)
Wanib
West African
- Adamorobe (AdaSL / Mumu kasa)
- Bura (Burasl)
- Mofu-Gudur
- Nanabin (NanabinSL)
Yoruban (YSL)
Zambian

Other groupings

International Sign

By region^[a]

Sign languages by region
Africa	Algeria Algerian Ghardaia Cameroon Maroua Ghana Adamorobe (AdaSL / Mumu kasa) Nanabin Ivory Coast Bouakako (LaSiBo) Kenya Kenyan Mali Tebul Bamako (LaSiMa) Nigeria Bura Hausa (Magannar Hannu) Senegal Mbour Somalia, Somaliland & Djibouti Somali South Africa South African Tanzania Tanzanian Uganda Ugandan Zambia Zambian
Asia	Bengal Bengali Cambodia Cambodian China Chinese Hong Kong Hong Kong (HKSL) India Alipur Bengali Indo-Pakistani Naga Indonesia Indonesian Kata Kolok (Benkala, Balinese) Iran Persian Iraq Iraqi Kurdish Israel Al-Sayyid Bedouin Ghardaia Israeli Kafr Qasem Japan Amami Oshima Japanese Miyakubo Korea Korean Laos Laotian Malaysia Malaysian Penang Selangor Mongolia Mongolian Nepal Ghandruk Jhankot Jumla Nepalese Philippines Filipino Saudi Arabia Saudi Singapore Singapore Sri Lanka Sri Lankan Taiwan Taiwanese Tajikistan Russian Tibet Tibetan (Bökyi lagda) Thailand Old Bangkok Chiangmai Thai Ban Khor (Pasa kidd) Vietnam Vietnamese
Europe	Armenia Armenian Austria Austrian Azerbaijan Azerbaijani Belgium Flemish French Belgian United Kingdom British Croatia Croatian Denmark Danish Faroese (Teknmál) Estonia Estonian Finland Finnish France Ghardaia French Lyons Germany German Greece Greek Hungary Hungarian Iceland Icelandic Ireland Irish Italy Italian Kosovo Yugoslav (Kosovar) Latvia Latvian Lithuania Lithuanian Moldova Russian Netherlands Dutch North Macedonia Macedonian Northern Ireland Northern Ireland Norway Norwegian Poland Polish Portugal Portuguese Russia Russian Slovenia Slovenian Spain Catalan Spanish Valencian Sweden Swedish Switzerland Swiss-German Turkey Central Taurus Mardin Turkish Ukraine Ukrainian
North and Central America	Plains Sign Talk Belize Belizean Canada American (ASL) Black ASL Protactile Blackfoot Cree Ojibwa Oneida Maritime (MSL) Quebec Inuit (Atgangmuurniq) Plateau Cayman Old Cayman Costa Rica Bribri Brunca Old Costa Rican New Costa Rican Cuba Cuban Greenland Greenlandic (Ussersuataarneq) Guatemala Guatemalan Mayan Haiti Haitian Honduras Honduran Mexico Albarradas Chatino Mayan Mexican Nicaragua Nicaraguan Panama Chiriqui Panamanian El Salvador Salvadoran Old Salvadoran United States American (ASL) Black ASL Protactile Blackfeet Cree Cheyenne Ojibwa Oneida Keresan (Keresign) Martha's Vineyard Navajo Navajo Family Sandy River Valley Henniker
Oceania	Australia Auslan Australian-Irish Akitiri (Eltye eltyarrenke) Far North Queensland Indigenous Arrernte (Iltyeme iltyeme) Warlpiri (Rdaka rdaka) Manjiljarra Warlmanpa Warumungu (Warramunga) Mudbura (Mudburra) Ngada Umpila Far North Queensland Western Desert Western Torres Strait Islander Yir Yoront Yolŋu Hawaii (USA) Hawaiʻan (Haoilona ʻŌlelo) New Zealand New Zealand (NZSL) Papua New Guinea Enga Kailge Mehek Mount Avejaha Papua New Guinean (PNGSL) Rossel Island Sinasina Wanib Samoa and American Samoa Samoan
South America	Argentina Argentine (LSA) Bolivia Bolivian Brazil Brazilian (Libras) Cena Ka'apor Chile Chilean Colombia Colombian Provisle Ecuador Ecuadorian Paraguay Paraguayan Peru Inmaculada Peruvian Sivia Uruguay Uruguayan Venezuela Venezuelan
International	International Sign Makaton Monastic Signalong

ASL

Extinct
languages

Linguistics

Grammar (ASL)
Bimodal bilingualism
Phonology (ASL)
Handshape / Location / Orientation / Movement / Expression
Mouthing
Nonmanual feature
Sign names

Fingerspelling

Writing

Language
contact

Contact sign Initialized sign Mouthing
Signed Oral Languages	Indian Signing System Manually coded English Manually coded language in South Africa Manually Coded Malay Paget Gorman Sign System Signed Dutch Signed French Signed German Signed Italian Signed Japanese Signed Polish Signed Spanish Signing Exact English Signed Swedish
Others	Bilingual–bicultural education Manually coded language

Media

Persons

Organisations

Miscellaneous

^a Sign-language names reflect the region of origin. Natural sign languages are not related to the spoken language used in the same region. For example, French Sign Language originated in France, but is not related to French. Conversely, ASL and BSL both originated in English-speaking countries but are not related to each other; ASL however is related to French Sign Language.

^b Denotes the number (if known) of languages within the family. No further information is given on these languages.

^c Italics indicate extinct languages.

Constructed languages

Classification

Specific
languages
by group

International auxiliary	Babm Blissymbols Bolak Communicationssprache Esperanto Adjuvilo Arcaicam Esperanto II Ido Mundolinco Reformed Romániço Universal other esperantidos Glosa Interglossa Idiom Neutral Intal Interlingua Interlingue International Sign Kotava Langue nouvelle Latino sine flexione Lingua Franca Nova Lingwa de planeta Mondial Neo Nal Bino Novial Pasilingua Sambahsa Solresol Sona Unish Universalglot Uropi Volapük
Zonal	Afrihili Budinos Efatese language Eurolengo Guosa N'Ko Palawa kani Pan-Germanic language Tutonish Pan-Romance language Romanid Pan-Slavic language Interslavic Iazychie Runyakitara Wede Weltdeutsch
Engineered	aUI Basic English Dutton Speedwords Ithkuil Kalaba-X Astrolinguistics Lincos Lingua generalis Loglan Logopandecteision Lojban Real Character Ro Toki Pona
Fictional and other artistic	Atlantean Belter Creole Brithenig Dritok Dothraki Elvish languages Enchanta Kēlen Kiliki Klingon Kobaïan Láadan Lapine Loxian Lydnevi Mänti Middle-earth languages Adûnaic Quenya Sindarin more... Naʼvi Nadsat Newspeak Spocanian Star Wars languages Syldavian Teonaht Tsolyáni Utopian Valyrian Venedic Verdurian Wenja
Ritual and other	Balaibalan Damin Enochian Eskayan Lingua ignota Medefaidrin Yerkish Zaum

Neography

Study

Comparisons

Linguistics edit

v t e Corpus linguistics
Text corpora, English	American National Corpus Bank of English Bergen Corpus of London Teenage Language British National Corpus Brown Corpus Buckeye Corpus Cambridge English Corpus Corpus of Contemporary American English Enron Corpus EnTenTen International Corpus of English Lancaster-Oslo-Bergen Corpus Oxford English Corpus PropBank Spoken English Corpus Switchboard Telephone Speech Corpus TIMIT VerbNet Wellington Corpus of Spoken New Zealand English
Text corpora, non-English	Bijankhan Corpus CHILDES CorCenCC National Corpus of Contemporary Welsh Croatian Language Corpus Croatian National Corpus Czech National Corpus Europarl Corpus German Reference Corpus Hamshahri Corpus National Corpus of Polish Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project Persian Speech Corpus Quranic Arabic Corpus Russian National Corpus Scottish Corpus of Texts and Speech Slovenian National Corpus TalkBank Tatoeba Tehran Monolingual Corpus Tekstaro de Esperanto TenTen Corpus Family Thesaurus Linguae Graecae
Organizations	BNC consortium COBUILD Sketch Engine

v t e Philosophy of language
Index of language articles
Philosophers	Confucius Gorgias Cratylus Plato Aristotle Eubulides Diodorus Chrysippus Zhuangzi Xunzi Averroes Ibn Khaldun Hobbes Leibniz Herder von Humboldt Mauthner Ricœur de Saussure Frege Boas Tillich Sapir Bloomfield Bergson Vygotsky Wittgenstein Russell Carnap Derrida Whorf Austin Chomsky Gadamer Kripke Ayer Anscombe Hintikka Dummett Davidson Grice Ryle Strawson Quine Putnam Lewis Searle Watzlawick
Theories	Causal theory of reference Contrast theory of meaning Contrastivism Conventionalism Cratylism Deconstruction Descriptivism Direct reference theory Dramatism Dynamic semantics Expressivism Inquisitive semantics Linguistic determinism Mediated reference theory Nominalism Non-cognitivism Phallogocentrism Relevance theory Semantic externalism Semantic holism Situation semantics Structuralism Supposition theory Symbiosism Theological noncognitivism Theory of descriptions (Definite description) Theory of language Unilalianism Verification theory
Concepts	Ambiguity Cant Linguistic relativity Language Truth-bearer Proposition Use–mention distinction Concept Categories Set Class Family resemblance Intension Logical form Metalanguage Mental representation Modality (natural language) Presupposition Principle of compositionality Property Sign Sense and reference Speech act Symbol Sentence Statement more...
Works	Cratylus (n.d.) Port-Royal Grammar (1660) De Arte Combinatoria (1666) An Essay Towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language (1668) Alciphron (1732) "On Denoting" (1905) Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (1921) Language, Truth, and Logic (1936) Two Dogmas of Empiricism (1951) Philosophical Investigations (1953) Of Grammatology (1967) Naming and Necessity (1980) Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language (1982) Limited Inc (1988)
Related articles	Analytic philosophy Philosophy of information Philosophical logic Linguistics Pragmatics Rhetoric Scholasticism School of Names Semantics Formal semantics Semiotics
Category Task Force Discussion

Phonation

Glottal states (from open to closed)

Breath	Breathy	Slack voice	Modal voice	Stiff voice	Creaky voice	Glottalized	Ballistic
(full airstream)	(murmur, whispery voice)	(intermediate)	(maximum vibration)	(intermediate)	(restricted airstream)	(blocked airstream)	(fortis)

Supra-glottal phonation

Faucalized voice ("hollow")
Harsh/ventricular voice ("pressed")
Strident voice (epiglottal trilled)

Non-phonemic phonation

Lexical categories and their features

Noun

Verb

Forms

Types

Other

v t e Lexicography
Types of reference works	Dictionary Glossary Lexicon Phrase book Thesaurus
Types of dictionaries	Advanced learner's Anagram Bilingual Biographical Conceptual Defining vocabulary Electronic Encyclopedic Etymological Explanatory Historical Idiom Language-for-specific-purposes Machine-readable Medical Monolingual learner's Multi-field Picture Reverse Rhyming Rime Single-field Specialized Spelling dictionary Sub-field Visual
Other	International scientific vocabulary List of lexicographers List of online dictionaries
Linguistics portal

v t e Lexicology
Major terms	Lexical item Lexicon Lexis Word
Elements	Chereme Glyphs Grapheme Lemma Lexeme Morpheme Phoneme Seme Sememe
Semantic relations	Antonymy Hypernymy and hyponymy Meronymy and holonymy Idiom Lexical semantics Semantic network Synonym Troponymy
Functions	Function word Headword
Fields	Controlled vocabulary English lexicology and lexicography International scientific vocabulary Lexicographic error Lexicographic information cost Linguistic prescription Morphology Specialized lexicography
Linguistics portal

Linguistic modalities and grammatical moods

Realis
(what is)

Irrealis

Deontic (what should be)	Benedictive Commissive (promises, threats) Directive (commands, requests, requirements) Debitive Deliberative Dynamic Hortative (+ subtypes) Imperative Injunctive Jussive Necessitative Permissive Precative Prohibitive Propositive Volitive (hopes, wishes, fears) Desiderative Imprecative Optative
Epistemic (what may be)	(inferences, possibilities, questions, etc.) Alethic Assumptive Deductive Dubitative Hypothetical Inferential/renarrative/oblique Interrogative Potential Speculative Subjunctive
Dependent circumstances (what would be)	Conditional Eventive

v t e Grammatical tenses
Future Crastinal Going-to Near Nonfuture Nonpast Nonpresent Present Hodiernal Past Hesternal
Present perfect Pluperfect Future perfect Future in the past / Future perfect in the past
Fake Relative and absolute

Grammatical cases

Cases

Morphosyntactic alignment	Absolutive Accusative Direct Ergative Intransitive Nominative Oblique Partitive Pegative
Location, time, direction	Ablative Adessive Allative Antessive Apudessive Approximative Delative Distributive -temporal Egressive Elative Illative Inelative Inessive Intrative Lative Limitative Locative -qualitative Medial Perlative Pertingent Postdirective Postelative Postessive Prolative Subdirective Subelative Subessive Sublative Superdirective Superelative Superessive Superlative Temporal Terminative
Possession, companion, instrument	Abessive Caritive Comitative Dative Genitive Instrumental -comitative Ornative Possessed Possessive Privative Sociative
State, manner	Adverbial Comparative Equative Essive -formal -modal Exessive Formal Instructive Modal Multiplicative Orientative Revertive Semblative Translative
Cause, purpose	Aversive Benefactive Causal -final Final
Other	Postpositional/Prepositional Vocative

Declensions

v t e Grammatical and lexical aspects
Complete vs. incomplete	Perfective Aorist Momentane Semelfactive^# Imperfective Continuous and progressive Delimitative Imperfect Iterative/distributive/frequentative^#
Generic vs. episodic	Gnomic Habitual
Beginning vs. ending	Inchoative aspect/verb^# Cessative
Relative time	Perfect (Retrospective) Prospective
^#Lexical aspects. Grammatical aspects unmarked.

Others edit

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Conversion	{{IPAc-en}} {{IPAc-cmn}} {{IPAc-hu}} {{IPAc-pl}} {{IPAc-yue}} {{subst:x2i}}
Maintenance	{{Needs IPA}} {{Pronunciation needed}}

Charts

Guidance

Meta templates

International Phonetic Alphabet (chart)

IPA topics

IPA	International Phonetic Association History of the alphabet Extensions for disordered speech (extIPA) Voice Quality Symbols (VoQS) Journal of the IPA (JIPA)
Special topics	Cursive forms Case variants Obsolete and nonstandard symbols Naming conventions Sinological extensions World Orthography IPA chart for English dialects
Encodings	ASCII encodings SAMPA X-SAMPA Kirshenbaum TIPA Phonetic symbols in Unicode IPA number IPA Braille

Consonants

Pulmonic consonants

Place →	Labial					Coronal										Dorsal					Laryngeal
Manner ↓	Bilabial		Labiodental		Linguolabial		Dental		Alveolar		Postalveolar		Retroflex		Palatal		Velar		Uvular		Pharyngeal/epiglottal		Glottal
Nasal	m̥	m	ɱ̊	ɱ		n̼			n̥	n			ɳ̊	ɳ	ɲ̊	ɲ	ŋ̊	ŋ	ɴ̥	ɴ
Plosive	p	b	p̪	b̪	t̼	d̼			t	d			ʈ	ɖ	c	ɟ	k	ɡ	q	ɢ	ʡ		ʔ
Sibilant affricate									ts	dz	t̠ʃ	d̠ʒ	tʂ	dʐ	tɕ	dʑ
Non-sibilant affricate	pɸ	bβ	p̪f	b̪v			t̪θ	d̪ð	tɹ̝̊	dɹ̝	t̠ɹ̠̊˔	d̠ɹ̠˔			cç	ɟʝ	kx	ɡɣ	qχ	ɢʁ	ʡʜ	ʡʢ	ʔh
Sibilant fricative									s	z	ʃ	ʒ	ʂ	ʐ	ɕ	ʑ
Non-sibilant fricative	ɸ	β	f	v	θ̼	ð̼	θ	ð	θ̠	ð̠	ɹ̠̊˔	ɹ̠˔	ɻ̊˔	ɻ˔	ç	ʝ	x	ɣ	χ	ʁ	ħ	ʕ	h	ɦ
Approximant				ʋ						ɹ				ɻ		j		ɰ						ʔ̞
Tap/flap		ⱱ̟		ⱱ		ɾ̼			ɾ̥	ɾ			ɽ̊	ɽ						ɢ̆		ʡ̆
Trill	ʙ̥	ʙ							r̥	r			ɽ̊r̥	ɽr					ʀ̥	ʀ	ʜ	ʢ
Lateral affricate									tɬ	dɮ			tꞎ	d𝼅	c𝼆	ɟʎ̝	k𝼄	ɡʟ̝
Lateral fricative									ɬ	ɮ			ꞎ	𝼅	𝼆	ʎ̝	𝼄	ʟ̝
Lateral approximant										l				ɭ		ʎ		ʟ		ʟ̠
Lateral tap/flap									ɺ̥	ɺ			𝼈̥	𝼈		ʎ̆		ʟ̆

Symbols to the right in a cell are voiced, to the left are voiceless. Shaded areas denote articulations judged impossible.

Non-pulmonic consonants

		BL	LD	D	A	PA	RF	P	V	U	EG
Ejective	Stop	pʼ			tʼ		ʈʼ	cʼ	kʼ	qʼ	ʡʼ
	Affricate		p̪fʼ	t̪θʼ	tsʼ	t̠ʃʼ	tʂʼ		kxʼ	qχʼ
	Fricative	ɸʼ	fʼ	θʼ	sʼ	ʃʼ	ʂʼ	ɕʼ	xʼ	χʼ
	Lateral affricate				tɬʼ			c𝼆ʼ	k𝼄ʼ	q𝼄ʼ
	Lateral fricative				ɬʼ
Click (top: velar; bottom: uvular)	Tenuis	kʘ qʘ		kǀ qǀ	kǃ qǃ		k𝼊 q𝼊	kǂ qǂ
	Voiced	ɡʘ ɢʘ		ɡǀ ɢǀ	ɡǃ ɢǃ		ɡ𝼊 ɢ𝼊	ɡǂ ɢǂ
	Nasal	ŋʘ ɴʘ		ŋǀ ɴǀ	ŋǃ ɴǃ		ŋ𝼊 ɴ𝼊	ŋǂ ɴǂ	ʞ
	Tenuis lateral				kǁ qǁ
	Voiced lateral				ɡǁ ɢǁ
	Nasal lateral				ŋǁ ɴǁ
Implosive	Voiced	ɓ			ɗ		ᶑ	ʄ	ɠ	ʛ
Implosive	Voiceless	ɓ̥			ɗ̥		ᶑ̊	ʄ̊	ɠ̊	ʛ̥

Co-articulated consonants

Labial–alveolar

Labial–velar

Fricative/approximant

ɥ̊

Labial–palatal

Labial–velar

Sj-sound (variable)

Lateral approximant

Velarized alveolar

Labial–velar

Labial–alveolar

Other	Nasal labial–velar approximant [w̃] Nasal palatal approximant [j̃] Voiceless bidental fricative [h̪͆] Voiceless bilabially post-trilled dental stop [t̪ʙ̥] Voiceless nasal glottal approximant [h̃]

Vowels

	Front	Central	Back
Close	i y	ɨ ʉ	ɯ u
Near-close	ɪ ʏ		ʊ
Close-mid	e ø	ɘ ɵ	ɤ o
Mid	e̞ ø̞	ə	ɤ̞ o̞
Open-mid	ɛ œ	ɜ ɞ	ʌ ɔ
Near-open	æ	ɐ
Open	a ɶ	ä	ɑ ɒ

Legend: unrounded • rounded