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Women in Venezuela

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Gender equality is established in the constitution of Venezuela and the country is a signatory of the United Nations's Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women. However, women in the history of Venezuela have played asymmetrical roles in society compared to men. Notable women have participated in the political history since the Venezuelan War of Independence in the 19th century, but universal suffrage was not granted until 1947.

Women in Venezuela
Portrait of Luisa Cáceres de Arismendi, heroine of the Venezuelan War of Independence
General Statistics
Maternal mortality (per 100,000)95 (2015)
Women in parliament23%, 38 out of 165 (2019)[1]
Women over 25 with secondary education71.7% (2017)
Women in labour force52% (2018)[2]
Gender Inequality Index[3]
Value0.492 (2021)
Rank123rd out of 191
Global Gender Gap Index[4]
Value0.699 (2021)
Rank91st out of 156

In modern times, Venezuela still faces important challenges related to discrimination, unequal political representation, lack of access to adequate health services and child care, and sex violence.

Miss Venezuela is considered a matter of national pride. Venezuela is one of the countries with more Miss World and Miss Universe titleholders in the world. Many of them have become notable actresses, journalists and politicians in Venezuela. The popularity of beauty pageants has translated into a culture of cosmetics and high levels of female plastic surgery.

Several Venezuelan women are notable for their contributions to the country and to the world's cultural heritage.

Politics

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Venezuelan independence

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Women that are considered heroines by the Venezuelan government for their participation in the Venezuelan War of Independence include Manuela Sáenz, Luisa Cáceres de Arismendi, Josefa Camejo, Juana Ramírez, and Eulalia Ramos.

20th century

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Women’s suffrage in Venezuela was first granted with the Constitution of 1947.[5] Women had started organising around the 1930s and 1940s with the death of dictator Juan Vicente Gómez.[6] But it was not until the 1950s that women from all social classes got involved and not only middle-class women.[7] Women also participated in the guerilla struggles during the 1960s but they did not take leading roles due to the male-dominated organisational character of these combatant groups.[8] In the 1970s through so-called Popular Women's Circles (Círculos Femeninos Populares) women tried to organize autonomously, address the problems of poor women and assist them with health, education and employment initiatives. However, their dependence on outside funding and support of male-ruled NGOs often constrained their goals.[7]

21st century

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In 2000, president of Venezuela Hugo Chávez appointed Adina Bastidas as vice-president, becoming the first woman to held that office.[9]

The crisis in Venezuela that occurred during the tenure of Chávez's successor Nicolás Maduro resulted with women becoming more reliant on discriminatory social policies of the government, making them more vulnerable if they opposed Maduro's government.[10]

Laws

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Marriage and family

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Family law was overhauled in 1982.[11] Cohabitation has increased in Venezuela since the 1990s.[12]

Representation

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In 1997, Article 144 of the Suffrage and Political Participation Organic Act established a 30% women quota in the lists of the parliamentary candidates. In 2000 the National Electoral Council suspended this article, declaring it unconstitutional because it violated the equality principle of the Article 21.[13] The expected consequence of this suspension was parity and an increase of the quota to 50%, but this has not been the case due to poor implementations and no measures being taken for infringements of legislations.[5] As of 2019, 38 out of 165 deputies elected to the National Assembly are women.[1] The number of ministries led by female politicians has decreased, compared to Chávez's final cabinet, from 39% to 24%. The Supreme Tribunal with 32 appointed judges (16 women and 16 men) is the only institution in Venezuela that presents parity of gender in its members.[5] At the community level women are increasingly present,[attribution needed] which is crucial in the empowerment of lower-class barrio women. Nonetheless, these female leaders of communal councils have reported that their presence is ignored at the higher levels and they are being excluded from political opportunities.[14]

Abortion

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Main article: Abortion in Venezuela

Selective abortion in Venezuelan law is punishable by up to six years in jail. Abortion is only allowed to be performed legally in order to save the life of the woman.[15] Illegal abortions are often carried in precarious conditions, but there are no official statistics.[15]

Current challenges

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Violence

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Main article: Violence against women in Venezuela
See also: Human trafficking in Venezuela

In 2007, the country enacted Ley Organica Sobre el Derecho de las Mujeres a una Vida Libre de Violencia (Organic Law on the Right of Women to a Life Free of Violence).[16]

During the crisis in Venezuela under the government of Nicolás Maduro, women in Venezuela became more vulnerable to sexual violence as a result of weak institutions and socioeconomic difficulties according to the Atlantic Council.[10] The crisis has left Venezuelan women exposed to exploitation through sex trafficking and prostitution.[10]

In 2017, about 2,795 women were murdered based on their gender.[17] With most Venezuelans having a lack of trust in the country's armed forces and public safety, "fewer women are reporting gender-based violence, and femicide has increased by 50%."[17]

Health access

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Humanitarian crisis in Venezuela

Due to the ongoing political and economic crisis in Venezuela, the country has been facing challenges in providing basic healthcare services and supplies to its population.[18] The healthcare system has suffered from a lack of investment, shortages of medical equipment and medications, and a significant exodus of healthcare professionals. In an interview report by the Human Rights Watch, doctors and patients reported the shortage and absence of certain medication, including but not limited to: antibiotics, anti-seizure medication, anti-convulsants, muscle relaxants, and painkillers.[19] Unsanitary conditions are caused by short supplies of PPE (personal protective equipment), such as "sterile gloves and gauze, antiseptics, medical alcohol, scalpels, needles, catheters, IV solutions, nebulization kits, and surgical sutures."[19] Consequently, the Venezuelan Health Ministry reports that rates of infant and maternal mortality in 2016 were "substantially higher" than those of previous years.[19] A doctor interviewed by the Human Rights Watch explains the failure in prenatal care in Venezuela:

Preventive medicine is no longer practiced, and in fact, right now, an [expectant] mother finds it difficult to find iron supplements, folic acid, or multivitamins at the pharmacy. Imagine now going to a clinic and getting it for free; that no longer exists. These shortcomings have consequences, including children who are born with a low birth weight or nutritional deficiencies, and for the mothers, infectious problems such as urinary infections that are left untreated. That is why you have a high rate of complications, because these issues are not controlled [by prenatal care]. Then, this results in a high risk of neonatal mortality.

Another challenge facing women, particularly mothers, in Venezuela is the high transmission rate of HIV from mother to child. The usual procedures of antiretroviral medicine use pre-birth, a scheduled caesarean delivery during birth, and post-natal prophylactic treatment of the newborn are no longer wide-spread protocols in the country.[19] Not only are many infant mortalities inevitable, but so are complicated births and, ultimately, complicated lives for infants and children in Venezuela.

Gender roles

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According to CEPAZ, women in Venezuela are at risk due to gender discrimination and the "hyper-sexualized stereotypes of Venezuelan women".[10] The professional women and businesswomen of Venezuela generally "work hard at looking great" and they "dress to impress"; their business dress include wearing feminine attire.[20]

Intersectionality

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Main article: Intersectionality

Women in Venezuela are not only susceptible to gender violence and discrimination, but may experience double discrimination if they also belong to another marginalized group. Intersectionality is an analytical framework for understanding how a person's various social and political identities combine to create different modes of discrimination and privilege.

For example, Afro-Venezuelan women may experience discrimination or violence from not only being a woman, but also due to her race as a non-white woman. Discrimination against Afro-Venezuelan women can manifest in the form of racial profiling, limited opportunities for advancement, and disproportionate rates of poverty. Skin and phenotype are methods that global society and its institutions use to perpetuate traditional gender roles and stereotypes. One way traditional gender roles are perpetuated in Venezuelan society is through the Miss Universe Pageant. Latina Magazine, for example, can be argued to portray Latin Americans that challenge these norms and break free from traditional expectations; however, the same magazine can also send conflicting messages about Latin American empowerment, with white-centric beauty standards as advertisements and Miss Universe commentary.[21]

Beauty pageants

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External videos
  The strict beauty standards Venezuelan women experience, resulting in insecurity and surgeries on YouTube

Beauty pageants are popular in Venezuela. The New York Times wrote in 1997, that " Venezuela has become the beauty queen factory of the world". Venezuela is one of the countries with more "Miss" pageant winners in the world, holding six Miss World (ranked first) and seven Miss Universe titles (second only to United States).[22][23] The national pageant Miss Venezuela, broadcast on TV every year, is watched by millions.[22][23] Many of these titeholders and contestants have continued their careers as notable actresses, journalists and even presidential candidates.[23]

Miss Venezuela title holders are seen as seen as a symbol of national pride.[24][25][26] This has promoted attention on beauty products and cosmetic procedures for women. Venezuela has one of the largest rates of cosmetic procedures per capita in the world.[26] Irene Sáez, 1998 presidential candidate and 1981 Miss Universe, said that "''In Venezuela, beauty contests are not a race, they're a religion.''[24] Raúl Gallegos, wrote in his 2016 book Crude Nation: How Oil Riches Ruined Venezuela, that the oil richness of Venezuela “has nurtured a culture in which looks have primordial importance.”[26]

The contest has been criticized in the past by the Venezuelan feminist movement. Journalist Elizabeth Fuentes recalls how she participated in a feminist rally in 1972, where protesters carried signs next to the pageant venue and tried to spray paint the dresses of the contestants. The protesters were dispersed by the police.[26]

Sociologist Esther Pineda G recognizes the popularity of beauty pageants in Venezuela as an indication of the country's enduring sexism.[23]

Miss Venezuela organization has been accused of arranging agreements between older men and contestants to finance their needs to advance in the contest. Patricia Velásquez, actress and 1989 Miss Venezuela contestant wrote that she was forced to enter in a relationship with an older man to be able to afford plastic surgery.[23] In 2018, Osmel Sousa, director and main coach of the contestants, left the organization after he was accused in social media of allegedly arranging contestants as escort for government officials.[23] Sousa however has denied accusations and he has been backed by previous participants.[23]

Notable examples in different fields

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Throughout history, women in Venezuela have played integral roles in shaping and enriching the nation's cultural landscape through their contributions to music, art, literature and science, and various other creative domains.

Arts

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Marisol Escobar, Venezuelan-American artist and sculptor.
  • Marisol Escobar, commonly known as Marisol, Venezuelan-American sculptor known for her large-scale works that explored themes of identity and cultural heritage.[27] She gained prominence in the 1960s for her distinctive figurative sculptures that blended Pop art, folk art, and contemporary influences. Marisol's work often depicted portraits of celebrities and political figures, using materials such as wood, plaster, and others to create larger-than-life figures.[27]
  • Gego, born Gertrud Goldschmidt in Germany, was a sculptor and printmaker known for her intricate wire sculptures.[28] Her work blurred the boundaries between sculpture and drawing, often exploring light, space, and movement.
  • Tecla Tofano, Italian-Venezuelan ceramist, draftswoman, metalsmith, and writer.[29] Her work focused on consumer culture, a direct link to her organization and mobilization of the left-wing political party, "Movimiento al Socialismo."

Fashion

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  • Carolina Herrera, American-Venezuelan fashion designer and business woman known for her personal style. She achieved success in women's and men's fashion and fragrances. Her products are worn by various American celebrities. Her company has stores worldwide and billions in sales.[30]

Literature

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  • Teresa de la Parra, novelist and essayist known for her exploration of the roles of women in Venezuelan society.[31] She is best known for her 1924 novel Ifigenia: Diario de una señorita que escribió porque se fastidiaba.[32] The novel explores the life of a young Venezuelan woman in Paris and addresses themes of identity, gender, and societal expectations.
  • Ana Teresa Torres, novelist and journalist who has won numerous awards for her work. Her literary works often explore social and political issues in Venezuela, particularly incorporating elements of magical realism and historical fiction.[33] Her acclaimed 1992 novel Doña Inés contra el olvido, portrays the life of a female guerrilla fighter during the Venezuelan War of Independence.[34]

Medicine and health

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Music

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  • Teresa Carreño, classical pianist, soprano, composer, and conductor, from the 19th and 20th century. She became an internationally renowned virtuoso pianist and was often referred to as the "Valkyrie of the Piano".[37]
  • Maria Teresa Chacín, singer and composer who has won numerous awards and is known for her contributions to the development of Venezuelan music.[38]
  • Soledad Bravo, singer, known for her powerful voice and political activism. Bravo's work reflects her involvement in social and political causes, addressing themes of social justice, human rights, and freedom.[38] Throughout her career, she has recorded and performed songs in various languages, gaining international acclaim.

Politics

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Science and math

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Yulimar Rojas, Venezuelan world record holder in women's triple jump.

Sports

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References

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  1. ^ a b "Female Deputies of National Assembly of Venezuela". República Bolivariana de Venezuela, Asamblea Nacional. Retrieved 25 April 2019.
  2. ^ "Labor force participation rate, female". The World Bank. Retrieved 25 April 2019.
  3. ^ "Human Development Report 2021/2022" (PDF). HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORTS. Retrieved 15 December 2022.
  4. ^ "Global Gender Gap Report 2021" (PDF). World Economic Forum. Retrieved 18 February 2022.
  5. ^ a b c El Entrompe De Falopio. "Desde Nosotras: Situación de los derechos humanos de las mujeres venezolanas.Informe Anual 2018" (PDF). Retrieved 16 May 2019.
  6. ^ Espina, Gioconda (2009). "Chapter 3: Feminist Activism in a Changing Political Context: Venezuela". In Jaquette, Jane S. (ed.). Feminist Agendas and Democracy in Latin America. Duke University Press. pp. 65–80. ISBN 978-0-8223-4449-0.
  7. ^ a b Fernandes, Sujatha (2007). "Barrio Women and Popular Politics in Chávez's Venezuela". Latin American Politics and Society. 49 (3): 97–127. doi:10.1111/j.1548-2456.2007.tb00384.x. JSTOR 30130812. S2CID 232389662.
  8. ^ Reif, Linda L. (1986). "Women in Latin American Guerrilla Movements: A Comparative Perspective". Comparative Politics. 18 (2): 147–169. doi:10.2307/421841. JSTOR 421841.
  9. ^ Runrun.es, Redacción (2015-01-14). "Secuestran y roban en su casa a exvicepresidenta Adina Bastidas". Runrun (in Spanish). Retrieved 2023-09-10.
  10. ^ a b c d Chavez, Angela (2020-03-05). "Venezuelan women: The unseen victims of the humanitarian crisis". Atlantic Council. Retrieved 2020-03-10.
  11. ^ See Capítulo XI De los Efectos del Matrimonio
  12. ^ "Cohabitación y matrimonios en Venezuela, 1971-2001. - ¿Contornos diluidos?" (PDF) (in Spanish). Retrieved 2023-09-28.
  13. ^ Espina, Gioconda (2007). "Beyond Polarization: Organized Venezuelan Women Promote Their 'Minimum Agenda'". NACLA Report on the Americas. 40 (2): 20–24. doi:10.1080/10714839.2007.11722311. S2CID 157655034.
  14. ^ United Nations Development Programme. "Women's Political Participation and Good Governance: 21st Century Challenges" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 May 2019. Retrieved 16 May 2019.
  15. ^ a b "'Too many children' as women denied abortion in Venezuela". France 24. 2023-07-24. Retrieved 2023-09-10.
  16. ^ "Ley orgánica sobre el derechode Las mujeres a una vida libre de violencia" (PDF) (in Spanish). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-07-01. Retrieved 2016-01-31.
  17. ^ a b Muresan, Arina; Mongwe, Simphiwe (2020). "Gender trends". Spotlight on Latin America and the Caribbean: 8.
  18. ^ Eoyang, Mieke; Peters, Allison; Mehta, Ishan; Gaskew, Brandon (2019). "Country Brief: Venezuela". 2019 Hot Topics in National Security: 64–75.
  19. ^ a b c d Bouckaert, Peter (2016-10-24). "Venezuela's Humanitarian Crisis". Human Rights Watch.
  20. ^ "Venezuela". eDiplomat. Retrieved 21 October 2013.
  21. ^ Calafell, Bernadette M. (2001). "In Our Own Image?!: A Rhetorical Criticism of "Latina" Magazine". Voces: A Journal of Chicana/Latina Studies. 3 (1/2): 12–46. ISSN 1065-4690. JSTOR 23013255.
  22. ^ a b "Sofia Salomon: angling to become first trans Miss Venezuela". France 24. 2023-05-27. Retrieved 2023-09-09.
  23. ^ a b c d e f g "In beleaguered Venezuela, young women use beauty pageants to escape poverty". NBC News. 2018-07-06. Retrieved 2023-09-09.
  24. ^ a b Schemo, Diana Jean (1997-12-09). "Caracas Journal; A Venezuelan Factory Line That Is Adept at Assembling Beauty". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2023-09-09.
  25. ^ Abbady, Tal (2018-05-19). "Opinion | Pimping Out Miss Venezuela". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2023-09-09.
  26. ^ a b c d null (2018-05-26). "La prostitución del Miss Venezuela". The New York Times (in Spanish). ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2023-09-09.
  27. ^ a b Anderson, Heather (1992). "Making Women Artists Visible". Art Education. 45 (2): 14–22. doi:10.2307/3193321. ISSN 0004-3125. JSTOR 3193321.
  28. ^ Rexer, Lyle (2007). "THE GEGO EFFECT". Art on Paper. 11 (5): 29–30. ISSN 1521-7922. JSTOR 24556310.
  29. ^ "Tecla Tofano | Hammer Museum". hammer.ucla.edu. Retrieved 2023-05-04.
  30. ^ "Carolina Herrera - Career, Fashion & Facts". Biography. 2021-09-15. Retrieved 2023-09-09.
  31. ^ Voces Femeninas de Hispanoamerica. University of Pittsburgh Press. 1996. doi:10.2307/j.ctt7zw7wd. ISBN 978-0-8229-3877-4. JSTOR j.ctt7zw7wd.
  32. ^ "Ifigenia. Diario de una señorita que escribió porque se fastidiaba – Museo del libro venezolano" (in Spanish). Retrieved 2023-05-04.
  33. ^ Kozak-Rovero, Gisela (2018). "Ana Teresa Torres". INTI (87/88): 11–32. ISSN 0732-6750. JSTOR 48568614.
  34. ^ TORRES, ANA TERESA; BOULLOSA, CARMEN; GONZÁLEZ, MELISSA (2010). "Ana Teresa Torres". BOMB (110): 58–62. ISSN 0743-3204. JSTOR 23041529.
  35. ^ Cantor, Astrid. "Las pioneras de la medicina en Venezuela". Cinco8 (in Spanish). Retrieved 2023-09-08.
  36. ^ "BBC 100 Women 2020: Who is on the list this year?". BBC News. 2020-11-23. Retrieved 2023-09-21.
  37. ^ "Teresa Carreno's Death Ends a Notable Career". Musical America: 13–14. June 23, 1917.
  38. ^ a b Peñín, José (2003). "Música popular de masas, de medios, urbana o mesomúsica venezolana". Latin American Music Review / Revista de Música Latinoamericana. 24 (1): 62–94. doi:10.1353/lat.2003.0014. ISSN 0163-0350. JSTOR 3598713. S2CID 191132959.
  39. ^ Valdez, Mario (1 Dec 2017). "Irene Sáez: 'La Reina, vuelve a Chacao'". Noticiero Digital (in Spanish).
  40. ^ (in Spanish) de la Rosa, Alicia (11 July 2011). "Diputada Machado anunciará su precandidatura el próximo domingo". El Universal. Accessed 12 July 2011.
  41. ^ "BBC 100 Women 2018: Who is on the list?". BBC News. 19 November 2018. Retrieved 23 July 2019.
  42. ^ Who's Who in Latin America: Part III, Columbia, Ecuador and Venezuela. Stanford University Press. p. 119. ISBN 978-0-8047-0726-8.
  43. ^ López, Liliana; Ranaudo, María Antonieta, eds. (2016). Mujeres en Ciencia:Venezuela sus historias inspiradoras (PDF). Academia de Ciencias Físicas, Matemáticas y Naturales.
  44. ^ "Professor Anamaria Font For Women In Science 2023 Laureate". www.loreal.com. Retrieved 2023-09-07.
  45. ^ "Watching Venezuela's Last Glacier Disappear". HHMI BioInteractive. 2019-01-15. Retrieved 2023-09-07.
  46. ^ "Yale Researcher Identifies Stars That Give Clues to the Milky Way". Yale News. 12 January 2000. Retrieved 5 April 2017.
  47. ^ Findling, John E.; Pelle, Kimberly (2002). Encyclopedia of the modern Olympic movement. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 441. ISBN 9780313322785.
  48. ^ "Mujeres que han marcado pauta en la historia venezolana" (in Spanish). 2019-03-07. Retrieved 2023-09-10.
  49. ^ "Athletics-Venezuela's Rojas smashes women's triple jump world record to take gold". Reuters. 1 August 2021. Archived from the original on 1 August 2021. Retrieved 1 August 2021.
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