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Umar
Amir al-Mu'minin
Al-Farooq
Caliph Umar's empire at its peak, 644.
Reign23 August 634–7 November 644
PredecessorAbu Bakr
SuccessorUthman

Umar ([undefined] Error: {{Lang-xx}}: no text (help), c. 586-590 CE – 7 November, 644), also known as Umar the Great or Farooq the Great was the most powerful of the four Rashidun Caliphs and one of the most powerful and influential Muslim ruler.[1] He was a sahaba (companion) of Prophet Mohammad. He succeeded Caliph Abu Bakr (632-634) as the second Caliph of Rashidun Caliphate on 23 August 634. He was an expert jurist and is best known for his justice with Muslims and non-Muslim subjects alike, that earned him the title Al-Farooq (The one who distinguish between good and bad) and his house as Darul Adal (house of justice). Under Umar Islamic empire expanded at an unprecedented rate annexing whole of Sassanid Persian Empire and more then two third of Eastern Roman Empire. His legislative abilities, his firm political and administrative control over rapidly expanding empire and his brilliantly coordinated multi-prong attacks against Sassanid Persian Empire that resulted in conquest of Persian empire in less then two years, marked his reputation as one of the political and military genius of the world.[2] It was Umar who for the first time in 500 years since expulsion of Jews from the Holy Land, allowed them to practice their religion freely and live in the Jerusalem. Religiously a controversial figure in the Muslim world, Umar is regarded by Sunni Muslims as one of four Rashidun or rightly guided caliphs who were true successors of Prophet Mohammad, in stark contrast, regarded by Shi'a Muslims as unjust in his usurpation of Ali's right to the caliphate, indeed as the principal political architect of opposition to Ali. According to Shia Muslims, Fatimah, wife of Ali and daughter of Muhammad, was abused by him and it is believed the event caused her to miscarry her child and eventually led to her death soon after.[3][4] (see Umar at Fatimah's house).


Early life

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Umar was born in Mecca. His father was Khattab ibn Nufayl and his mother was Hatmah bint Hasham she was from the tribe of Banu Makhzum. He is said to have belonged to a middle class family. In his youth he use to tending his father’s camels in the plains near Mecca, his father was famous because of his intelligence in his tribe. He was a middle class merchant, he was ruthless man and emotional polytheist often use to treat Umar badly. During his reign once Umar said

[5].

In his youth Umar learnt to read and write, being literate was considered to be uncommon in those times. Though not a poet but he developed love for poetry and literature.[6] According to the tradition of Quraish, while still in his teenage, Umar learnt martial arts, horse riding and wrestling. He was tall and and physically powerful and was soon to became a renowned wrestler.[7][8] Umar's clan of Banu Adi, which was responsible for arbitrations among the tribes. Umar was a gifted orator, and due to his intelligence and overwhelming personality soon after his father's death he replaced him as an arbitrator of conflicts among the tribes.[9]. In addition to it, Umar followed the the traditional profession of Quraish. He became a merchant and had several journeys to Syria, where he is said to have met the various scholars and analyzed the Roman society closely. As a merchant he was never much successful.[10].[11] Drinking alcohol was very common among the Quraish. Umar was also fond of drinking in his pre-Islamic days.[12].

During Muhammad's era

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Umar's hostility to Islam

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In 610 A.C Prophet Mohammad started delivering the massage of Allah, as for other people of Mecca Umar too opposed Islam. He resolved to defend the traditional, polytheistic religion of Arabia. He was most adamant and cruel in opposing Muhammad and very prominent in persecuting the Muslims.[13] Umar was the first man who resolved that Muhammad had to be murdered to finish Islam.[14] Umar firmly belived in unity of Quraish and saw the new faith of Islam as a cause of division and discord amoung Quraish.[15]

Due to the persecution at the hands of Quraish Prophet Mohammad ordered his followers to migrate to Abyssinia a small group of Muslims migrated, this migration made Umar feel worried about the unity and future of Quraish, he thus decided to assasinate Prophet Mohammad to get rid of the division that was created due to Islam among the people of Mecca[16].

Converting to Islam

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Umar converted to Islam in 616, one year after the Migration to Abyssinia. According to the most popular Sunni version of the story, recounted in Ibn Ishaq's Sīrah, ` On the way to murder Muhammad, Umar met a Muslim who told him to set his own house in order first, as his sister and her husband had converted to Islam. Upon arriving at her house, `Umar found his sister and brother in law Saeed bin Zaid(Umar's his cousin), reciting the verses of the Qur'an.[17] He started beating his brother in law savagely when sister came to rescue her husband he also beat her until she started bleeding seeing her sister now, he calm down and ask her sister to give him what she was reciting she gave him the paper on which writen the verses of sura Ta-Ha. He was so struck by the verses that he accepted Islam that day. He then went to Prophet Mohammad with the same sword and accepted Islam. Umar was 27 when he accepted Islam [18]. Following this `Umar went to inform the chief of Quraish, Amr ibn Hishām, about his acceptance of Islam. According to one account, Umar, thereafter prayed openly at the Kaaba as the Quraish chiefs, Amr ibn Hishām and Abu Sufyan ibn Harb reportedly watched in anger.[19] According to the same account, this further helped the Muslims to gain confidence in practicing Islam openly, since it is said that no one dared to interfere with Umar when he was openly praying. Umar’s embracing to Islam gave power to Islam in Mecca, it was after him, that Muslims first time offered prayers openly in Masjid al-Haram. Famous campanion of Prophet Abdullah bin Masoud said:

[20]

All these things earned for Umar the title of Farooq. Farooq is the one who makes a difference. Umar's acceptance of Islam had made a big difference for Islam and Muslims.

Migration to Madinah

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In 622 A.C due to growing popularity of Islam in the city of to Yathrib (later renamed Medīnat an-Nabī, or simply Medina) Prophet Mohammad ordered his followers to migrate to Madinah, Muslims usually migrated at night due to fear of Quraish’s resistance to that migration, but Umar is reported to have migrated openly during day time saying

Umar migrated to Madinah, accompained by his cousin and brother in law Saeed ibn Zaid.[23].

Life in Madinah

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Madinah became the new center of Islam and from thereafter Islam grew rapidly across Arabia. When Prophet Muhammad arrived in Medinah, he paired off each immigrant (Muhajir) with one of the residents of Medina (Ansari), joining Muhammad ibn Maslamah with Umar making them brothers in faith. This Muhammad ibn Muslamah later in Umar's reign would be assign the office of chief inspector of Accountability department. In Madinah, Umar was one of two chief advisers to Muhammad, the other being Abu Bakr. He remained with Prophet Mohammad on ever event and Prophet Mohammad often use to take his advises over the matters. It was not that the Messenger always followed Umar’s Consultation but he still utilized him on many occasions. Muslims remained in peace in Medina for about 1 year before the Quraish raised an army to attack Medina. In 624 A.C Umar participated in the first Battle between Muslims and Quraish of Mecca i.e Battle of Badr.In 625 he participated in The Battle of Uhud. In the second phase of Battle when Khalid ibn Walid’s Cavalry attacked muslims at rear changing the victory of Muslims in to defeat and rumors of Prophet Mohammad’s death were spread many Muslim warriors routed from the battle field Umar too initially routed but hearing that Prophet Mohammad is still alive he went to Prophet Mohammad at Uhud hill and prepared for the defenses of the hill to keep Quraishi army down the hill.[24]. Later in the year Umar was a part of campaign again the Jewish tribe of Banu Nadir. In 625 A.C Umar’s daughter Hafsah was married to Prophet Mohammad [25]. Later In 627 he participated in the Battle of the Trench and also in the Battle of Banu Qurayza.[26] In 628 Umar participated in Treaty of Hudaybiyyah and was made one of the witness over the pact.[27]. In 628 he was a part of Muslim’s campaign to Khaybar. In 629 Prophet Mohammad sent Amr ibn al-A’as to Zaat-ul-Sallasal from where he called for reinforcement and Prophet Mohammad sent Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah with reinforcement, under him were serves Abu Bakr and Umar they attacked and defeated the enemy [28]. In 630 when Muslims armies rushed for the Conquest of Mecca he was part of that army. Later in 630 he was part of Battle of Hunayn and Siege of Ta'if. He was part of Muslim's army that went for campaign of Tabuk under Muhammad's command and he was reported to have given half of his wealth for the preparation of this expedition. He also participated in a farewell Hajj of Prophet Mohammad in 631.[29].

Death of Mohammad

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Prophet Mohammad died on 8 June 632. Umar was full of grief upon hearing the news, Umar, the devoted disciple, couldn't accept the reality that the Messenger of God has passed away.[30] It is said that he promised to strike the head of any man who would say that he died. At this point Abu Bakr is reported to have come out to the Muslim community and gave his famous speech which included:

Abū Bakr then recited these verses from the Qur'an:

Hearing this from Abu Bakr, the most senior disciple of Muhammad, Umar then fell down on his knees in great sense of sorrow and acceptance of the reality. Sunni Muslims say that this denial of Prophet Muhammad's death was occasioned by his deep love for Muhammad.[31]

Foundation of the Caliphate

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Umar's political genius first manifested as the architect of the caliphate after Muhammad died in 8 june 632.[32]. While the funeral of Muhammad was being arranged a group of Muhammad's followers who were natives of Medina, the Ansar (helpers), organised a secret meeting on the outskirts of the city, effectively locking out those companions known as Muhajirs (The Emigrants) including Umar [33]. Umar found out about this meeting at Saqifah Bani Saadah, and taking with him two other Muhajirs, Abu Bakr and Abu Ubayda, proceeded to the meeting to presumably to head off the Ansar's plans for political domination. Arriving at the meeting Umar was faced with a unified community of tribes from the Ansar who refused to accept the leadership of any of the three Muhajirs who had arrived. [34]. However Umar was undeterred in his belief the caliphate should be under the control of the Muhajirs,[35][36]. Most of the Muslim community, including Muhammad's companions, as well as his family, including all the surviving early Muslims barring Abu Bakr, had not been present at the meeting. Though the Khazraj were in disagreement, Umar after strained negotiations lasting up to one or two days, brilliantly divided the Ansar into their old warring factions of Aws and Khazraj tribes, Umar resolved the divisions by placing his hand on that of Abu Bakr as a unity candidate for those gathered in the Saqifah, most others gathered at the Saqifah followed suit with the exception of the Khazraj tribe, Sa'd bin Ubada, whose tribe was ostracized. The tribe is said to have posed no significant threat as there were sufficient men of war from the Madinan tribes such as the Banu Aws to immediately organize them into a military bodyguard for Abu Bakr[37].

According to shia Muslims, Umar and Abu Bakr were aware of the extent of Ali's claims to the caliphate [38]. After the event of the Saqifah Umar and Abu Bakr are said to fearful of Ali and his supporters from amongst the companions of Muhammad, in particular that they were not accepting Umar's claim that Abu Bakr's caliphate was legitimate [39]. It is said that , consequently Ali was sent for by the new regime of Abu Bakr and Umar to give his allegiance to Abu Bakr[40]. Ali however refused [41]. Ali and his supporters gathered in the House of Ali's wife Fatima, the daughter of Muhammad [42]. Learning of Ali's refusal to accept Abu Bakr's leadership, Umar and Abu Bakr are reported to have gathered an armed contingent to use violent force to extract the allegiance from Ali and his party[43]. It is claimed that They surrounded the House of Fatima with their armed force [44]. Umar is reported to have warned those in the House that if Ali resisted Umar would set the House of Fatima with its inhabitants ablaze [45]. Ali resisted, refusing to capitulate to Abu Bakr and Umar, and a violent conflict ensued between the warring sides at the House of Fatima [46]. This claim however is discarded by Sunni Muslims who on the contrary believe that Ali gave oath of alliance to Abu Bakr with out any grievance. The western scholars how ever believe that Ali was reluctant to swear allegiance to Abu Bakr and gave his allegiance six months later after the death of Fatima. Western scholars however discounted the possibility of use of force by Umar and Abu Bakr for the allegiance, and view the event of Umar at Fatimah's house as very unlike.[47]

Caliph Abu Bakr's Era

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During Abu Bakr's short reign as caliph he was mostly remained occupied with Ridda wars, Umar was one of his chief advisers and secretary. Umar along with Khalid, probably was the architect and main strategist behind the collapse of rebellion in Arabia. Though at the beginning due to the apprehensive situation in Arabia Umar was opposing the military operations against the rebel tribes, it was to enjoy their support in case of any possible foreign invasion by Romans or Persian, but later he seem to agree with Abu Bakr's warlike strategies to crush rebellion. Khalid ibn Walid by late 632 had successfully united Arabia after consecutive victories against rebels. Later during his own reign, Umar would mostly adopt the policy of avoiding wars and consolidating his power in the conquered land rather then expanding his empire through continuous warfare.[48] Prior to Battle of Yamamah, Umar pressurized Abu Bakr to call back Khalid, who had killed Malik ibn Nuwayrah, a rebel chief who was a state criminal. Umar was reportedly misguided by Malik's brother that Malik was a Muslim and Khalid killed him because he wanted to marry his wife Layla bint al-Minhal, a renowned beauti in Arabia. While Abu Bakr refused to accept Umar's opinion and Umar continue insisting for Khalid disposal even after Khalid's conquest of Iraq. This became a major issue between Abu Bakr and Umar and a spacious chapter in Islamic history. It was Umar who advised Abu Bakr to compile Quran in the form of a book, after the death of 300 memorizers of Quran in Battle of Yamamah. Abu Bakr appointed Umar as his successor prior to his death in 634. He was confirmed in the office thereafter.

Appointment as a Caliph

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Due to his strict and autocratic nature, Umar was not a very popular figure among the notables of Madinah and members of Majlis al Shura, accordingly succession of Umar was initially discouraged by high ranking companions of Abu Bakr.[49][50] Nevertheless, Abu Bakr decided to make Umar, his successor. Umar, still was well known for his extraordinary will power, intelligence, political astuteness, impartiality, justice and care for poor and underprivileged people.[51] Abu Bakr is reported to have said to the high ranking advisers:


[52]

Abu Bakr of fully aware of Umar's power and ability to succeed him. Succession of Umar was thus not as troublesome as any of the others. His was perhaps one of the smoothest transitions to power from one authority to another in the Muslim lands.[53] Abu Bakr before his death called Uthman to write his will in which he declared Umar his successor. In his will he instructed Umar to continue the conquests on Iraq and Syrian fronts. Abu Bakr's decision would proved to be crucial in the strengthening of the nascent Islamic empire.

Reign as Caliph

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On 22nd of August Caliph Abu Bakr died. The same day Umar assumed the office of Caliphate. After the assumption of office as the Caliph, Umar addressed the Muslims in his Inaugural address as:

Initial challenges

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Umar was already not a endearing figure in Madinah. Although almost all of the Muslims had given pledge of loyalty to him, nevertheless he was rather more feared than loved. The first challenge for Umar was to win out his subjects and members of Majlis al Shura.[54] Umar was a gifted orator, and he would use his ability to get a soft corner in the hearts of people.[55] On Friday prayers Umar addressed the people as follow:

Umar's addresses greatly moved the people. Next time he addressed the people as:

There could be no better definition of the democracy and justice, then the historic words of Umar, over which he laid foundation of his rule:

Umar's stress was on the well being of poor and underprivileged people, as this class made a bulk of any community, the people were soundly moved by Umar's speeches and his popularity grew rapidly and continuously over the period of his reign.[59] In addition to this Umar, in order to improve his reputation and relation with Banu Hashim, the tribe of Ali, delivered to him his disputed estates in Khayber. Though he followed Abu Bakr's decision over the dispute of land of Fidak, continued its status as a state property. In Ridda wars, thousands of prisoners from rebel and apostate tribes were taken away as slaves during the the expeditions. Umar ordered the general amnesty for the prisoners, and their immediate emancipation.[60] This made Umar quite a popular among the budoiene tribes. With necessary public support with him, Umar took a bold decision of retrieving Khalid ibn Walid from supreme command on Roman front.[61]

Dismissal of Khalid from Command

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Khalid ibn Walid, a military genius and then a hero of campaign of Apostasy and conquest of Iraq was never in the good books of Umar. Umar dismissed Khalid from high command and appointed Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah as new commander in chief.[62] Though he was his cousin, relationship between Khalid and Umar were already tense since the incident of Malik ibn Nuwayrah. There was an air of distrust between Khalid and Umar, which thus resulted in the dismissal of Khalid from supreme command then and later in 638 from military services.[63] There was a huge uproar over this decision of Umar in Madinah, as Khalid was immensely popular among the people due to his military genius. Khalid, rather gave a pledge of loyalty to the new Caliph and keep on serving as an ordinary commander under Abu Ubaidah. He is reported to have said:

This decision would be one of Umar's decision over which he regretted later. There was inevitably a slowdown in the pace of military operations, as Abu Ubaidah would move slowly and steadily. The conquest of Syria continued under him, Abu Ubaidah being an admirer of Khalid, made him command of cavalry and relyed heavily on his advice during the whole campaign.[65]

Political and civil administration

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The government of Umar was more or less a unitary government, where the sovereign political authority was the Caliph. The empire of Umar was divided into provinces and some autonomous territories like in some regions Azerbaijan and Armenia, that had accepted the suzerainty of Caliphate. The provinces administered by the provincial governors or Wali. The selection of which was made personally by Umar, who was very fastidious in it. Provinces were further divided into districts, there were about 100 districts in the empire. Each district or main city was under the charge of a junior governor or Wali, usually appointed by Umar himself, but occasionally they were also appointed by the provincial governor. Other officers at the provincial level were:

  1. Katib, the Chief Secretary.
  2. Katib-ud-Diwan, the Military Secretary.
  3. Sahib-ul-Kharaj, the Revenue Collector.
  4. Sahib-ul-Ahdath, the Police chief.
  5. Sahib-ul-Bait-ul-Mal, the Treasury Officer.
  6. Qadi, the Chief Judge.

In some districts there were separate military officers, though the Governor (Wali) was in most cases the Commander-in-chief of the army quartered in the province. Every appointment was made in writing. At the time of appointment an instrument of instructions was issued with a view to regulating the conduct of Governors. On assuming office, the Governor was required to assemble the people in the main mosque, and read the instrument of instructions before them.[66].

Umar's general instructions to his officers were:

Various other strict code of conducts were to be obeyed by the governors and state officials. The principal officers were required to come to Mecca on the occasion of the Hajj, during which people were free to present any complaint against them. In order to minimize the chances of corruption, Umar made it a point to pay high salaries to the staff. Provincial governor received as much as five to seven thousand dirham annually besides their shares of the spoils of war (if they were also the commander in chief of the army of there sector). Under Umar the empire was divided into the following provinces.

  1. Arabia was divided into two provinces, Mecca and Medina;
  2. Iraq was divided into two provinces, Basra and Kufa;
  3. In the upper reaches of the Tigris and the Euphrates, Jazira was a province;
  4. Syria was a province;
  5. Umar divided Palestine in two provinces Aylya and Ramlah;
  6. Egypt was divided into two provinces, Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt;
  7. Persia was divided into three provinces, Khorasan; Azarbaijan and Fars.

Umar was first to established a special department for the investigation of complaints against the officers of the State. This department acted as Administrative court, where the legal proceedings were personally led by Umar.[67] The Department was under the charge of Muhammad ibn Maslamah, one of Umar's most trusted man. In important cases Muhammad ibn Maslamah was deputed by Umar to proceed to the spot, investigate the charge and take action. Sometimes an Inquiry Commission was constituted to investigate the charge. On occasions the officers against him complaints were received were summoned to Madinah, and charged in Umar's administrative court. One of Umar's most powerful department was his intelligence department of secret services. Umar's iron fist rule on his empire, is often credited to this institution . His agents were every where, in the army, in the bureaucracy and in the enemy land. For the officials of Umar it was said to be the most fearsome department.

Reforms

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Main article: Reforms of Umar's era
Main article: Covenant of Umar I

Umar is regarded as one of the greatest political genius in history[68], While under his leadership, the empire was expanding at a unprecedented rate, he also began to build the political structure that would hold together the vast empire that was being built. He undertook many administrative reforms and closely oversaw public policy. He established an advanced administration for the newly conquered lands, including several new ministries and bureaucracies, and ordered a census of all the Muslim territories. During his rule, the garrison cities (amsar) of Basra and Kufa were founded or expanded. In 638, he extended and renovated the Masjid al-Haram (Grand Mosque) in Mecca and the Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (Mosque of the Prophet) in Medina.[69] Umar also ordered the expulsion of the Christian and Jewish communities of Najran and Khaybar allowing them to reside in Syria or Iraq. He issued orders that these Christians and Jews should be treated well and allotted them the equivalent land in their new settlements. Umar also forbade non-Muslims to reside in the Hejaz for longer than three days.[70] He was first to establish army as a state department. Umar was founder of Fiqh, the Islamic jurisprudence.[71] He is regarded by sunni Muslims to be one of the greatest Faqih. Umar as a jurist started the process of codifying Islamic Law. In 641, he established Bayt al-mal, a financial institution and started annual allowance for the Muslims. A year later he also started allowance for the poor, underprivileged and old non-Muslim citizens of the empire. As a leader, 'Umar was known for his simple, austere lifestyle. Rather than adopt the pomp and display affected by the rulers of the time, he continued to live much as he had when Muslims were poor and persecuted. In 639, his fourth year as caliph and the seventeenth year 17 since the Hijra, he decreed that the Islamic calendar should be counted from the year of the Hijra of Prophet Mohammad from Mecca to Madinah.

military expansion

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Main article: Military conquests of Umar's era

It is widely believe that Umar stressed more on consolidating his power and political influence in the conquered land, rather then persisting conquests. Nevertheless under Umar, The Islamic empire grew at an unprecedented rate. In 638, after the conquest of Syria, Umar dismissed Khalid, his most successful general due to his every growing fame and influence. Later however Umar regretted over his decision. The military conquest were partially terminated between 638-639 during the years of great famine and plague in Arabia and Levant respectively. During his reign Levant, Egypt, Cyrenaica, Tripolitania, Fezzan, Eastern Anatolia, almost whole of Sassanid Persian Empire including Bactria, Persia, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Caucasus and Makran were annexed to Islamic Empire. Accordiong to one estimate more then 4050 cities were captured during these military conquest.[72] Prior to his death in 644, Umar had ceased all military expeditions apparently to consolidate his rule in Egypt and newly conquered Sassanid Empire (642-644). At his death in November 644, domain of his rule extended from present day Lybia in west to Indus river in east and Oxus river in north.

The great Famine

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In the year 638, Arabia fall into severe drought followed by a famine. Bedouin people began to die because of hunger and epidemic diseases, as a result of drought and famine hundreds of thousands of people from all over Arabia gathered at Madinah where due to city life and civic sense, food was rationed. Soon the reserves of food at Madinah began to decline, Umar wrote to the provincial governors of Syria, Palestine and Iraq for the aid. State of emergency was declared in Madinah and Arabia. The timely aid of Umar's governors saved life of thousands of people through out Arabia. First governor to respond was Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah, the governor of Syria and supreme commander of Rashidun army. The sent a historic letter to Umar saying

Later Abu Ubaidah paid a personal visit to Madinah and acted as an officer of Disaster management cell, which was headed personally by Umar. Hundreds of thousands of people from desert towns had already gathered in Madinah, once adequate supply of ration reached Madinah, Umar dispatched his men to the routes of Iraq, Palestine and Syria to take the supply caravans to the desert settlements deeper into Arabia, which in turn saved millions from annihilation. For the internally displaced people, Umar hosted a diner every night at Madinah, which according to one estimate every night more then hundred thousand people use to attend.[73] By early 639 conditions begun to improve, Arabia received precipitation and as soon as famine ends, Umar personally supervised the rehabilitation of the displaced people. They were given adequate amount of ration and were exempted from payment of zakat for that year and the next year.

The great Plague

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While famine was ending in Arabia, many districts in Syria and Palestine were devastated by plague. While Umar was on his way to visit Syria, at Elat, he was received by Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah, governor of Syria, who informed him about plague and its intensity and he was suggest to go back to Madinah, Umar tried to persuade Abu Ubaidah to come with him to Madinah but he denied to leave his troops in that critical situation. Abu Ubaidah died in 639 due to plague, which also cost the life of 25,000 Muslims in Syria. After plague was weaken in late 639 Umar visited Syria for it political and administrative re-organization, as most of the veteran commanders and governs had died in plague.[74]

Assassination

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In 644, at zenith of his power, Umar was assassinated. It is believed that his assassination was a Persian conspiracy, who were infuriated by Umar's conquest of their empire. The assassination was planed several months ago, in October 644 Umar went for Hajj in Mecca, the assassins started the hoopla of Umar's possible death that year, the massive crowd of congregation was used by the conspirators as a veil to hide themselves. It is related that when Umar stood at the Mount Arafat he heard a voice saying:

"O Caliph, never again will you stand on the Mount of Arafat"

. A companion of Umar, Jabir bin Mutaam is reported to have said:

We saw a man standing at the top of the hill and crying 'Verily that is the last Hajj of Umar. He will never come here again."

During one of rituals of Hajj, the Ramy al-Jamarat (stoning of the Devil), some one threw a stone on Umar that wounded his head, a voice was heard that Umar will not attend the Hajj ever again. Amongst the conspirators was Hormuzan, the alleged master mind of the plot. He was Persian commander in Chief and was captured and brought to Umar at Madinah where to save his life he apparently converted to Islam. One of Umar's advisors, Ka'ab al-Ahbar, a former Jewish Rabbi, who apparently had converted to Islam, but his conversion is generally doubted by the scholars.[75][76] Jafinah, the Christian Arab from Iraq, who was also a foster brother of Saad ibn Abi Waqqas, former governors of Busra. The last of the master minds was Piruzan, popularly known as Abu Lulu, he was slave of Mughira ibn Shu'ba, then a governor of Busra. It was Abu Lulu who was assigned the mission of assassinating Umar. According to the plan, before the Fajrprayers (the morning prayers before the dawn) Abu Lulu will enter Al-Masjid al-Nabawi, the main mosque of Madinah where Umar led the prayers and will attack Umar during the prayers, and will fled or will mix with the congregation at mosque. There were Persian children slaves in Madina. Seeing them, Firoz is quoted saying:

You have been enslaved at such a tender age. This Umar sees eaten my heart. I will take his heart out".

Abu Lulu brought a conjectural complain to Umar about the high tax charged from him by his master Mughirah. Umar wrote to Mughirah and inquired about the tax, Mughirah's reply was satisfactory Umar held that the tax charged from Abu Lulu was reasonable, owning the to his daily income. Umar than is reported to have asked Abu Lulu:

I heard that you make windmills; make one for me as well. In a sullen mood, Firoz said, " Verily I will make such a mill for you, that whole world would remember it ".

As Firoz went away, the Caliph told the people around him that the Persian slave had threatened him. Three days before attack on Umar on 1 November 644, Ka'ab al-Ahbar, is reported to have warned Umar that he will die in three days. On each successive day he further warned him about two days left and then one day left until on 3 November 644, Umar was attacked, while leading the morning prayers, Abu Lulu stabbed him six times in the belly and last on the navel, that proved fetal. Umar was left profusely bleeding while Abu Lulu tried to fled but people from all sides rushed to capture him, he in his desperate efforts to escape is reported to have wounded twelve other people, six or nine of them later died. At last he was captured but committed suicide from the same dagger. Umar died of the wounds three days later on sunday, 7 November 644.[77] Umar is reported to have left the following testament:

Aftermaths

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On his death bed Umar vacillated to appoint his successor, however it has been reported that he said that if Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah, Khalid ibn Walid or Salim, the mawali and freed Persian slave, were alive he would have appointed one of them his successor. Umar finally appointed a committee of six persons comprising,

  1. Abdur Rahman bin Awf
  2. Saad ibn Abi Waqqas
  3. Talha ibn Ubaidullah
  4. Uthman ibn Affan
  5. Ali ibn Abi Talib
  6. Zubayr ibn al-Awwam

Their task was to chose a caliph from amongst them. Umar appointed a band of fifty armed soldiers to protect the house where the meeting was proceeding. Umar further instructed that with in three days of his death if the committee failed to elect the caliph owing to any possible dispute, the majority view will be considered and in case the other group persisted they shell be executed. Until the appointment of the next caliph Umar appointed a notable Sahabi, a mawali, Suhayb ar-Rumi (Suhayb the Roman) as a caretaker Caliph. While the historic meeting for selection of caliph was preceding, Abdulrehman ibn Abu Bakr and Abdur Rahman bin Awf revealed that they saw the dagger used by Abu Lulu, the assassin of Umar. A night before Umar's assassination, reported Abdur Rahman bin Awf, he saw Hormuzan, Jafina and Abu Lulu, while they were suspiciously discussing some thing, bewildered by his presence dagger was dropped from them, it was the same two sided dagger. Abudulrehman ibn Abu Bakr, son of late caliph Abu Bakr also confirmed that few days before Umar's assassination, he once saw this dagger with Hurmazan. After the mystery of assassination uncover by the two of the most notable governmental figures, it seemed clear that the assassination was planed by the Persians residing in Madinah. Infuriate by this Umar's younger son Ubaidullah ibn Umar sought to kill all the Persians in Madinah. He killed Hormuzan, Jafinah, and daughter of Umar's assassin Abu Lulu, who is believed to be a Muslim. Ubaidullah was intercepted by the people of Madinah and withholding him from the massacre. Amr ibn al-Aas is said to have intercepted him, convince him to handover his sword. The murder of Jafinah, enraged Saad ibn Abi Waqqas, his foster brother, and he assaulted Ubaidullah ibn Umar and again the companions intervened. It is also believed that Umar daughter Hafsa bint Umar provoked Ubaidullah to take the punitive action. When Umar was informed about the incident, he ordered that Ubaidullah should be imprisoned and the next Caliph should decide his fate.[78] Umar died on 7 November 644, and on 11 November, Uthman succeeded him as the Caliph. After a prolong negotiations the tribunal decided to give blood money to the victims and released Umar's son Ubaidullah, on the ground that after the tragic incident of Umar's assassination people will be further infuriated by execution of his son the very next day.

Legacy

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Umar is regarded as one of the most influential figure in history. He was in true sense, architect Islamic Empire. As a leader, 'Umar was known for his simple, austere lifestyle. Rather than adopt the pomp and display affected by the rulers of the time, he continued to live much as he had when Muslims were poor and persecuted. 'Umar was vigorous, robust and a very tall man, in markets he would tower above the people. The front part of his head was bald, always A'sara Yusran (working with two hands),[79] both his eye's are black, with yellow skin, however, ibn Sa'ad in his book The Book of the Major Classes (Tabaqat al-Kubra) stated that he never knew that 'Umar had yellow skin, except if the people took into criterion a certain part of his life where his color changed because he always ate oil at that part of his life,[80] Others say he has reddish-white skin. His teeth were ashnabul asnan (very white shining). He would always color his beard and take care of his hair using a type of plant.[80][81]

Political legacy

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Umar is considered as a political genius, as an architect of Islamic Empire he is regarded as 52th most influential figure in history.[82] Umar remained politically stagnant during Prophet Mohammad's era, however after his death, it was Umar's brilliance that Abu Bakr was elected Caliph, despite of massive initial confrontations at Saqifah. Umar successfully broke the alliance of the tribes of Madinah who claim Caliphate to be their right in addition cleverly sidelined Ali, paving the way for the succession of Abu Bakr. during Abu Bakr's era, he actively participated as his secretory and main adviser. After succeeding Abu Bakr as caliph, Umar win over the hearts of Baudouin tribes by emancipating all their prisoners and slaves taken during Ridda wars, his excellent oratory skills helped him to heightened his popularity graph, mostly among the poor and underprivileged people. He proved himself as a excellent manager during the year of the great Famine when his dynamic abilities saved millions from starvation. He is best known to built up an efficient administrative structure of the empire, that held together his vast realm. He organized an effective network of intelligence, partly a reason for his strong grip on his bureaucracy.[83] His judicial reforms were fairly modern and advance in nature when compared to contemporary systems of his era. He opposed the construction of present day Suez canal, as it posed threat to the security of Madinah. Twelve hundred years later Great Britain opposed the construction of the canal for the same reason as it then posed threat to its colonies in Indian subcontinent. One of the reason of the compactness of his political rule in the conquered lands is reputed to his policy of tolerance to their religious believes and imposition of far lower taxes on them as compared to Sassanid Persian empire and Byzantine Empire. Their local administration was kept un-touched and several of the former Byzantine and Persian official were retained on their services under Umar's governors. Umar was very painstaking in every matter. His meticulous was evident from his appointment of governors and judges that never let him lose his grip on the government. He never appointed governors for more then two years, for they might get influence in their county. He dismissed his most successful general Khalid ibn Walid, due to his immense popularity and growing influence that he saw menace to his authority. Rather than tenacious conquest he stressed more on consolidating his rule in the conquered land, a fact that saved Byzantine empire from complete disappearance. Umar is reported to have wished an official tour across his domain to personally examine the condition of his subjects. In 641, before the conquest of Persian empire, Umar is reported to have said:

It should be noted that at the time, Umar made this statement, Persia was not yet conquered (conquest of Persia begun in 642). He would walk the streets of Medina with a whip in his hand, and it is said that Umar's whip was feared more than the sword of another man. He is famous for covert night tour of the city to know the secret life of his domain, the tradition that later be followed by some of the Abbasid Caliphs and even Mughul rulers of Indian subcontinent.

Military legacy

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It has been reported that Umar was a champion wrestler of his time, though not distinguish as a swordsman, he would latter attain prominence as a master strategist and along with Khalid, is said to be one of the main architect of the strategic planning for successful collapse of Arabian rebellion, the greatest triumph of Abu Bakr. One of his greatest strategic marvel was his brilliant fission of Persio-Roman alliance in 636, when Emperor Heraclius and Emperor Yazdegerd III allied against their common enemy Umar. He was lucky for the Persian Emperor Yazdegerd III couldn't synchronize with Heraclius, as planed. Umar fully availed the opportunity and successfully tackled the minefield by straining Byzantines to jump in the battle contrary the the orders of Empreror Heraclius, who presumably wanted a coordinated attack along with Persians. Umar did this by sending reinforcement to Roman front with instructions that the reinforcement should appear in the form of small bands one after the other giving an impression of a continuous stream of reinforcement that finally lure Byzantines to an untimely battle. On the other hand Yazdegerd III of Persia was engaged into negotiations, that further gave Umar time to transfer his troops from Syria to Iraq these troops proved decisive in Battle of Qadisiyyah. Both the battles thus fought proved decisive and are noted as one of the most decisive battles in history. His strategic dimensions were the prime reason of Muslim victory at 2nd Battle of Emesa in 638. Where the pro-Byzantine Christian Arabs of Jazira, aided by Byzantine Emperor, making an unexpected flanking movement and laid siege to Emesa. Umar's brilliance was behind Muslim victory that was achieved with out firing a single shot. Umar's orders to invade the very homeland of the Christian Arab forces besieging Emesa, the Jazirah. A three prong attack against Jazirah was launched from Iraq. To further pressurize the Christian Arab armies, Umar instructed Saad ibn Abi Waqqas, commander of Muslim forces in Iraq, to sent reinforcement to Emesa, Umar himself led a reinforcement from Madinah and marched towards Emesa. Under this unprecedented press-gang, Christian Arabs retreated from Emesa before Muslims reinforcement could reach their. This incursion from Byzantines however resulted in Muslim annex Mesopotamia and parts of Byzantine Armenia. Nonetheless the greatest triumph of Umar remained Conquest of Persian empire. After years of non-offensive policy according to which Umar wished the Zagros mountains to be the frontiers between Muslims and Persians, after Battle of Nahavand Umar launched a whole scale invasion of Sassanid Persian Empire. The invasion was a series of well coordinated multi-prong attacks that was based on the principle of isolating and then destroying the target. Umar launched the invasion by attacking the very heart of Persia aiming to isolate Azerbaijan and eastern Persia. It was immediately followed by simultaneous attacks on Azerbaijan and Fars. In the final secession Sistan and Kirman and captured thus isolating the stronghold of Persian, The Khurasan. The final expedition was launched against Khurasan where after Battle of Oxus river Persian empire ceased to exist, and emperor Yazdegerd III fled to central Asia.

Religious legacy

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Sunni views

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Main articles: Sunni view of Umar and Hadith of Umar and the Qur'an

Sunnis remember Umar as a rigid Muslim of stern and potentially aggressive disposition in matters of the religion of Allah, a man they title Farooq, meaning "leader, jurist and statesman", and the second of the rightly-guided Caliphs. He patched his clothes with skin, took buckets on his two shoulders, always riding his donkey without the saddle, rarely laughing and never joking with anyone. On his ring is written the words "Enough is Death as a reminder to you O' 'Umar".[84] He did not seek advancement for his own family, but rather sought to advance the interests of the Muslim community, the ummah. The general Sunni sentiment for Umar is summarized by one of Muhammad's companions, Abd Allah ibn Mas'ud:

Omar's submission to Islam was a conquest, his migration was a victory, his Imamate (period of rule) was a blessing, I have seen when we were unable to pray at the Kaabah until Umar submitted, when he submitted to Islam, he fought them (the pagans) until they left us alone and we prayed.

— Abd Allah ibn Mas'ud, [85]

Shia Views

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Main article: Shi'a view of Umar

Umar is viewed very negatively in Shia literature and is regarded as a traitor to Muhammad, a usurper of Ali's rights, and a murderer. Some Shi'a writers have accused him of killing Muhammad's daughter Fatimah (see Fatimah#Death). According to Shia Muslims, Fatimah, wife of Ali and daughter of Muhammad, was physically abused by him. These sources report aht the event caused her to miscarry her child and eventually led to her death soon after.[86][87] (see Umar at Fatimah's house).

Western views

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In his book Mahomet and His Successors, Washington Irving estimates the achievements of Umar in the following terms:

"The whole history of Umar shows him to have been a man of great powers of mind, inflexible integrity and rigid justice. He was more than any one else the founder of the Islamic empire; confirming and carrying out the inspirations of the Prophet; aiding Abu Bakr with his counsels during his brief Caliphate; and establishing wise regulations for the strict administration of the law throughout the rapidly-extending bounds of the Muslim conquests. The rigid hand which he kept upon his most popular generals in the midst of their armies, and in the most distant scenes of their triumphs, gives signal evidence of his extra-ordinary capacity to rule. In the simplicity of his habits, and his contempt for all pomp and luxury, he emulated the example of the Prophet and Abu Bakr. He endeavored incessantly to impress the merit and policy of the same in his letters to his generals. 'Beware' he would say of Persian luxury both in food and raiment. Keep to the simple habits of your country, and Allah will continue you victorious; depart from them and He will reverse your fortunes'. It was his strong conviction of the truth of this policy which made him so severe in punishing all ostentatious style and luxurious indulgence in his officers. Some of his ordinances do credit to his heart as well as his head. He forbade that any female captive who had borne a child should be sold as a slave. In his weekly distributions of the surplus money of his treasury, he proportioned them to the wants, not the merits of the applicants. 'God' said he, 'has bestowed the good things of this world to relieve our necessities, not to reward our virtues: those will be rewarded in another world'.

In his book The Caliphate: Its Rise, Decline, and Fall Sir William Muir says as follows about Umar:

Umar's life requires but few lines to sketch. Simplicity and duty were his guiding principles; impartiality and devotion the leading features of his administration. Responsibility so weighed upon him that he was heard to exclaim 'O that my mother had not borne me; would that I had been this stalk of grass instead!' In early life, of a fiery and impatient temper, he was known, even in the later days of the Prophet, as the stern advocate of vengeance. Ever ready to unsheathe the sword, it was he who at Badr advised that the prisoners should be put to death. But age, as well as office, had now mellowed this asperity. His sense of justice was strong. And except it be the treatment of Khalid, whom according to some accounts, he pursued with an ungenerous resentment, no act of tyranny or injustice is recorded against him; and even in this matter, his enmity took its rise in Khalid's unscrupulous treatment of fallen foe. The choice of his captains and governors was free from favoritism and (Al-Mughira and Ammar excepted) singularly fortunate. The various tribes and bodies in the empire, representing interests the most diverse, reposed in his integrity implicit confidence, and his strong arm maintained the discipline of law and empire. . . Whip in hand he would perambulate the streets and markets of Madina, ready to punish slanders on the spot; and so the proverb Umar's whip is more terrible than another's sword'. But with all this he was tender hearted, and numberless acts of kindness are recorded of him, such as relieving the wants of the widows and the fatherless.

In his classical work The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire Gibbon refers to Umar in the following terms:

"Yet the abstinence and humility of Umar were not inferior to the virtues of Abu Bakr: his food consisted of barley bread or dates; his drink was water; he preached in a gown that was torn or tattered in twelve places; and a Persian satrap, who paid his homage as to the conqueror, found him asleep among the beggars on the steps of the mosque of Muslims. Economy is the source of liberality, and the increases of the revenue enabled Umar to establish a just and perpetual reward for the past and present services of the faithful. Careless of his own emolument, he assigned to Abbas, the uncle of the Prophet, the first and most ample allowance of twenty-five thousand dirhams of pieces of silver. Five thousand were allotted to each of the aged warriors? The relics of the field of Badr and the last and the meanest of the companions of Mohammad was distinguished by the annual reward of three thousand pieces. Under his reign and that of his predecessors, the conquerors of the East were the trusty servants of God and the people; the mass of public treasure was consecrated to the expenses of peace and war; a prudent mixture of justice and bounty maintained the discipline of the Saracens, and then united, by a rare felicity, the dispatch and execution of despotism with the equal and frugal maxims of a republican government."

In his book History of the Arabs Professor Philip Khuri Hitti has assessed the achievements of Umar in the following terms:

"Simple and frugal in manner the energetic and talented Umar (634-644) who was of towering height, strong physique and bald headed, continued at least for some time after becoming the Caliph to support himself by trade and lived throughout his life in a style as unostentatious as that of a Bedouin Sheikh. In fact, Umar, whose name according to Muslim tradition is the greatest in early Islam after that of Mohammad, has been idolized by Muslim writers for his piety, justice and patriarchal simplicity and treated as the personification of all the virtues a Caliph ought to possess. His irreproachable character became an exemplar for all conscientious successors to follow. He owned, we are told, one shirt and one mantle only, both conspicuous for their patchwork, slept on a bed of palm leaves, and had no concern other than the maintenance of the purity of the faith, the upholding of justice and the ascendancy and security of Islam and the Arabians. Arabic literature is replete with anecdotes extolling Umar's stern character. He is said to have scourged his own son to death for drunkenness. Having in a fit of anger inflicted a number of stripes on a Bedouin who came seeking his succor against an oppressor, the Caliph soon repented and asked the Bedouin to inflict the same number on him. But the latter refused. So Umar retired to his home with the following soliloquy: 'O son of Al-Khattab humble thou wert and Allah has elevated thee, thou went astray, and Allah hath guided thee; thou were weak, and Allah hath strengthened thee. Then He caused thee to rule over the necks of thy people, and when one of them came seeking thy aid thou didst strike him! What wilt thou have to say to thy Lord when thou presentest thyself before Him'. The one who fixed the Hijrah as the commencement of the Muslim era, presided over the conquest of large portions of the then known world, instituted the state register and organized the government of the new empire, met a tragic and sudden death at the very zenith of his life when he was struck down by the poisoned dagger of a Christian Persian slave in the midst of his own congregation."


The Encyclopedia Britannica remarks about Umar:

"To Umar's ten years' Caliphate belong, for the most part, the great conquests. He himself did not take the field, but remained in Madina; he never, however, suffered the reins to slip from his grasp, so powerful was the influence of his personality and the Muslim community of feeling. His political insight is shown by the fact that he endeavored to limit the indefinite extension of Muslim conquest, to maintain and strengthen the national Arabian character of the commonwealth of Islam; also by making it his foremost task to promote law and order in its internal affairs. The saying with which he began his reign will never grow antiquated: 'By God, he that is weakest among you shall be in my eye the strongest, until I have vindicated for him his rights; he that is strongest I will treat as the weakest, until he complies with the law'. It would be impossible to give a better general definition of the function of the State."

Family

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Main article: Family tree of Umar

Umar married a total of 9 women in his lifetime and had 14 children, 10 son and 4 daughters.

The details are as follow:

Wife: Zaynab bint Mazh'un (at the time of Jahiliyyah [Days of Ignorance])
Son: Abdullah ibn Umar (The Older)
Son: Abdullah ibn 'Umar (The Younger)
Son: Abdulrehman ibn 'Umar
Daughter: Hafsa bint Umar
Wife: Umm Kulthum bint Jarwila Khuzima (divorced)[88]
Son: Ubaidullah ibn Umar
Son: Zayd ibn 'Umar[88]
Wife: Quraybah bint Abi Umayyah al-Makhzumi (divorced, married by Abdulrehman ibn Abu Bakr)
Wife: Umm Hakim bint al-Harith ibn Hisham (after her husband, a former ally of 'Umar and a companion Ikrimah ibn Abi-Jahl was killed in Battle of Yarmouk, later divorced but al-Madaini says he did not divorce her)[89]
Daughter: Fatima bint 'Umar
Wife: Jamilah bint Ashim ibn Thabit ibn Abi al-Aqlah (from the tribe of Aws)[90][88][91]
Son: Asim ibn Umar
Wife: Atikah bint Zayd ibn Amr ibn Nifayl (cousin of Umar and former wife of Abdullah ibn Abu Bakr[90][92] married 'Umar in the year 12 AH and after 'Umar was murdered, she married az-Zubayr ibn al-Awwam)
Son: Iyaad ibn 'Umar
Wife: Umm Kulthum bint 'Ali There is a difference of opinion whether 'Umar married her or Umm Kulthum bint Abu Bakr. Shia scholars says that she was Umm Kulthum daughter of Abu Bakr not Umm Kulthum daughter of Ali.
Son: Zayd ibn 'Umar
Daughter: Ruqayyah bint 'Umar
Wife: Luhyah (a woman from Yemen (Yaman) who's marital status with 'Umar is disputed, al-Waqidi said that she was Umm Walad, meaning a slave woman)[88]
Son: Abdulrehman ibn 'Umar (the youngest Abdulrehman while some say the middle Abdulrehman from Luhyah)
Wife: Fukayhah (as Umm Walad)[84]
Daughter: Zaynab bint 'Umar (the smallest child of 'Umar from Fukayhah)


Another son is, az-Zubayr ibn Bakkar, called Abu Shahmah, though from which wife is unknown.[88]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ Ahmed, Nazeer, Islam in Global History: From the Death of Prophet Muhammad to the First World War, American Institute of Islamic History and Cul, 2001, p. 34. ISBN 073885963X.
  2. ^ http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/Caliphate.html
  3. ^ http://books.google.com/books?id=zot5IK1csp0C&pg=PA19&dq=&lr=
  4. ^ http://books.google.com/books?id=vGhp8Obm3bgC&pg=PA45&dq=&lr=
  5. ^ Al Farooq, Umar By Muhammad Husayn Haykal.chapter no:1 page no:45
  6. ^ Al Farooq, Umar By Muhammad Husayn Haykal Chapter no:1
  7. ^ Al Farooq, Umar By Muhammad Husayn Haykal Chapter no:1
  8. ^ Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari, History of the Prophets and Kings
  9. ^ Al Farooq, Umar By Muhammad Husayn Haykal. chapter no:1 page no:40-41
  10. ^ Al Farooq, Umar By Muhammad Husayn Haykal, chapter no:1
  11. ^ Tabqat ibn Sa'ad. Chapter: Umar ibn Khittab.
  12. ^ Al Farooq, Umar By Muhammad Husayn Haykal, chapter no:1 page no:47
  13. ^ Al Farooq, Umar By Muhammad Husayn Haykal.chapter no:1 page no:51
  14. ^ Armstrong, p. 128.
  15. ^ Al Farooq, Umar By Muhammad Husayn Haykal.chapter no:1 page no:51
  16. ^ Al Farooq, Umar By Muhammad Husayn Haykal Chapter no: 1 page no: 53
  17. ^ as-Suyuti, The History of Khalifahs Who Took The Right Way (London, 1995), p. 107-108.
  18. ^ Tartib wa Tahthib Kitab al-Bidayah wan-Nihayah by ibn Kathir, published by Dar al-Wathan publications , Riyadh Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, 1422 Anno hegiræ (2002) compiled by Dr. Muhammad ibn Shamil as-Sulami, page 170, ISBN 979-3407-19-6 Parameter error in {{ISBN}}: checksum
  19. ^ Armstrong, p. 35.
  20. ^ Serat-i-Hazrat Umar-i-Farooq, by Mohammad Allias Aadil, page no:30
  21. ^ Serat-i-Hazrat Umar-i-Farooq, by Mohammad Allias Aadil, page no:119
  22. ^ Armstrong, p. 152.
  23. ^ Tartib wa Tahthib Kitab al-Bidayah wan-Nihayah by ibn Kathir, published by Dar al-Wathan publications , Riyadh Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, 1422 Anno hegiræ (2002) compiled by Dr. Muhammad ibn Shamil as-Sulami, page 170, ISBN 979-3407-19-6 Parameter error in {{ISBN}}: checksum
  24. ^ Serat-i-Hazrat Umar-i-Farooq, by Mohammad Allias Aadil, page no:40-41
  25. ^ Serat-i-Hazrat Umar-i-Farooq, by Mohammad Allias Aadil, page no:42-42, Sahih al bukhari
  26. ^ Tabqat ibn al-Saad book of Maghazi, page no:62
  27. ^ Tabqat ibn al-Saad book of Maghazi,page no:62
  28. ^ Sahih-al-Bhukari book of Maghazi ,Ghazwa Zaat-ul-Sallasal
  29. ^ Serat-i-Hazrat Umar-i-Farooq, by Mohammad Allias Aadil, page no:56
  30. ^ as-Suyuti, The History of Khalifahs Who Took The Right Way (London, 1995), p. 54 - 61.
  31. ^ as-Suyuti, The History of Khalifahs Who Took The Right Way (London, 1995), p. 54 - 61.
  32. ^ Madelung, Wilferd. The Sucession of Muhammad. Cambridge University Press
  33. ^ Madelung, Wilferd. The Sucession to Muhammad. Cambridge University Press
  34. ^ The History of al-Tabari. State University of New York Press, 1990
  35. ^ The History of al-Tabari. State University of New York Press, 1990
  36. ^ The History of al-Tabari. State University of New York Press, 1990
  37. ^ Madelung, Wilferd. The Sucession to Muhammad. Cambridge University Press
  38. ^ The History of Al-Tabari, State University of New York Press, 1990
  39. ^ The History of Al-Tabari, State University of New York Press, 1990
  40. ^ The History of Al-Tabari, State University of New York Press, 1990
  41. ^ The History of Al-Tabari, State University of New York Press, 1990
  42. ^ The History of Al-Tabari, State University of New York Press, 1990
  43. ^ The History of Al-Tabari, State University of New York Press, 1990
  44. ^ The History of Al-Tabari, State University of New York Press, 1990
  45. ^ The History of Al-Tabari, State University of New York Press, 1990
  46. ^ The History of Al-Tabari, State University of New York Press, 1990
  47. ^ The Succession to Muhamma By Wilferd Madelung page:43
  48. ^ Medieval Islamic political thought By Patricia Crone page 18
  49. ^ Serat-i-Hazrat Umar-i-Farooq, by Mohammad Allias Aadil, page no:58-59
  50. ^ K. Y. Blankinship, The History of al-Tabari: vol. XI, p. 157
  51. ^ Early caliphate By Muhammad Ali, Muḥammad Yaʻqūb K̲h̲ān page 85
  52. ^ Umar Farooq-i-Azam, by Mohammad Hussain Haikal chapter no:4 page no:112-113
  53. ^ K. Y. Blankinship, The History of al-Tabari: vol. XI, p. 145-153.
  54. ^ Al Farooq, Umar By Muhammad Husayn Haykal. chapter no:5 page no:119
  55. ^ Modern Islamic political thought By Hamid Enayat page no:6
  56. ^ Al Farooq, Umar By Muhammad Husayn Haykal. chapter no:5 page no:123
  57. ^ Al Farooq, Umar By Muhammad Husayn Haykal. chapter no:5 page no:124
  58. ^ Al Farooq, Umar By Muhammad Husayn Haykal. chapter no:5 page no:125
  59. ^ Al Farooq, Umar By Muhammad Husayn Haykal. chapter no:5 page no:130
  60. ^ Al Farooq, Umar By Muhammad Husayn Haykal. chapter no:5 page no:135
  61. ^ Al Farooq, Umar By Muhammad Husayn Haykal. chapter no:5 page no:140
  62. ^ Akram, A. I. The Sword of Allah: Khalid bin al-Waleed, His Life and Campaigns, Nat. Publishing House. Rawalpindi, 1970. ISBN 0-71010-104-X.
  63. ^ Ahmad, Fazl (1976). Khalid Bin Walid: The Sword of Allah. Lahore: Muhammad Ashraf Publishers.
  64. ^ Waqidi: p. 62.
  65. ^ Akram, chapter 31.
  66. ^ The Cambridge History of Islam, ed. P.M. Holt, Ann K.S. Lambton, and Bernard Lewis, Cambridge 1970
  67. ^ Commanding right and forbidding wrong in Islamic thought By M. A. Cook page no:79
  68. ^ http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/Caliphate.html
  69. ^ Book of the Thousand Nights and One Night By E. P. Mathers page no: 471
  70. ^ Giorgio Levi Della Vida and Michael Bonner, Encyclopaedia of Islam, and Madelung, The Succession to Prophet Muhammad, p. 74
  71. ^ The origins of Islamic jurisprudence By Harald Motzki, Marion
  72. ^ Medieval Islamic Civilization By Josef W. Meri, Jere L. Bacharach page no:844
  73. ^ Al Farooq, Umar By Muhammad Husayn Haykal. chapter no:22
  74. ^ Al Farooq, Umar By Muhammad Husayn Haykal. chapter no:21
  75. ^ http://www.songofazrael.org/presentations/kaab-alahbar/kaab-al-ahbar.html
  76. ^ http://www.al-islam.org/encyclopedia/chapter10/6.html
  77. ^ Al Farooq, Umar By Muhammad Husayn Haykal. chapter no: Death of Umar
  78. ^ Al Farooq, Umar By Muhammad Husayn Haykal. chapter no:death of Umar
  79. ^ Lisan al-Arab 4/196
  80. ^ a b The Book of the Major Classes (Tabaqat al-Kubra) 3/ 324 by ibn Sa'ad
  81. ^ History of the Prophets and Kings (Tarikh ar-Rusul wa al-Muluk) 4/ 196 by Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari
  82. ^ The 100 By Michael H. Hart
  83. ^ Islamic Imperialism By Efraim Karsh page no: 25
  84. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference misas168 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  85. ^ as-Suyuti, The History of the Khalifas Who Took the Right Way, p. 112
  86. ^ http://books.google.com/books?id=zot5IK1csp0C&pg=PA19&dq=&lr=
  87. ^ http://books.google.com/books?id=vGhp8Obm3bgC&pg=PA45&dq=&lr=
  88. ^ a b c d e Nasab Qurayshi page 349 by az-Zubayri
  89. ^ Finding the Truth in Judging the Companinons (al-Isaba fi tamyiz as-Sahaba) 8/ 193 by Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani
  90. ^ a b History of the Prophets and Kings 4/ 199 by Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari
  91. ^ The Book of the Major Classes (Tabaqat al-Kubra ibn Sa'd) 3/ 265 by ibn Sa'ad
  92. ^ al-Bidayah wa al-Nihayah 6/352 by ibn Kathir

References

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  • Donner, Fred, The Early Islamic Conquests, Princeton University Press, 1981
  • Guillaume, A., The Life of Muhammad, Oxford University Press, 1955
  • Madelung, Wilferd, The Succession to Muhammad, Cambridge University Press, 1997
  • "G.LeviDellaVida and M.Bonner "Umar" in Encyclopedia of Islam CD-ROM Edition v. 1.0, Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands 1999"
  • Previte-Orton, C. W (1971). The Shorter Cambridge Medieval History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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Sunni Islam titles
Preceded by Rashidun Caliph
634 – 644 		Succeeded by

Category:Converts to Islam Category:Arab people Category:Rashidun Category:Sahaba Category:588 births Category:644 deaths Category:Assassinated religious leaders

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