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Not to be confused with the East African Campaign (World War II).
East African Campaign
Part of the African Theatre of World War I and the Anglo-Somali War

The Battle of Tanga (November 1914) by Martin Frost
Date8 August 1914 – 25 November 1918
Location
Eastern Africa
Modern Tanzania, Zambia, Mozambique, Rwanda, Burundi, Kenya, Uganda and D.R. Congo
Result

Allied tactical victory; German strategic victory.

  • German East Africa becomes British, Belgian and Portuguese mandates
Belligerents

 Belgium

Portugal Portugal

 German Empire

Dervish State
Commanders and leaders
Union of South Africa Jan Smuts
Union of South Africa Jacob van Deventer
Belgium Charles Tombeur
Portugal Ferreira Gil		 Heinrich Schnee (POW)
German Empire Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck (POW)
Strength

1914:
British: 2,400[1]
from the King's African Rifles
Belgian: 15,000[2]
from the Force Publique
Portuguese: 1,680[3]

Overall, 1914-1918:
160,000~[4]		 1914:
2,700 Schutztruppen,[5]
2,700 Landsturm[5]

The East Africa Campaign[a] was a campaign fought between an Allied British, Belgian and Portuguese force against the German Empire in eastern Africa during World War I.

  • No static trench warfare in East Africa like that on the Western Front. Most of the fighting consists of small-scale skirmishes along a mobile front.
  • Most fighting takes place against German forces, however, the campaign also starts native insurrections in Nyasaland and Portuguese East Africa alongside the pre-existing campaign against Somaliland rebels.
  • Fighting continues far longer than German campaigns in Togoland, Kamerun and South-West Africa, and the Von Lettow only surrenders when he receives orders from Berlin - not defeated.

Background edit

 
Map of the proposed Mittelafrika with German territory in yellow

German East Africa (Deutsch-Ostafrika) was colonized by the Germans in 1885. The territory itself spanned 384,180 square miles (995,000 km2) and covered the areas of modern-day Rwanda, Burundi and Tanzania.[6] The colony's indigenous population numbered seven and a half million and was governed by just by just 5,300 Europeans. Although the colonial regime was relatively secure, the colony had recently been shaken by the Maji Maji Rebellion of 1904-5 whose effects were still being felt by 1914. The German colonial administration could call on a military Schutztruppe ("Protection force") of 260 Europeans and 2,470 Africans, in addition to 2,700 white settlers who were part of the reservist Landsturm, as well as a small paramilitary Gendarmerie.[6]

The outbreak of World War I in Europe led to the increased popularity of German colonial expansion and the creation of a Deutsch-Mittelafrika ("German Central Africa") which would parallel a resurgent German Empire in Europe.[7] Mittelafrika effectively involved the annexation of territory, mostly occupied by the Belgian Congo, in order to link the existing German colonies in East, South-west and West Africa.[7] The territory would dominate central Africa and would make Germany as by far the most powerful colonial power on the African continent.[7] Nevertheless, the German colonial military in Africa was weak, poorly equipped and widely dispersed. Although better trained and more experienced than their opponents, many of the German soldiers were reliant on weapons like the Model 1871 rifle which used obsolete black powder.[8] At the same time, however, the militaries of the Allied powers were also encountering similar problems of poor equipment and low numbers; most colonial militaries were intended to serve as local paramilitary police to suppress resistance to colonial rule and were neither equipped nor structured to fight wars.[9]

Strategies edit

Even the largest concentration of German troops in the continent, situated in East Africa, were numerically unable to fight an aggressive war.[10] The main objective for the German forces in East Africa, led by Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck, was to force Allied governments to keep military forces and supplies in Africa rather than send them to fight in Europe.[11] In particular, by threatening the important British Uganda Railway, von Lettow hoped to force British troops to invade East Africa where he could fight a defensive action.[11] In 1912, the German government had designed a strategy for the defense of East Africa; the military would withdraw from the coastline into the interior where they would fight a guerilla campaign against all invaders.

For the Belgians, continued German presence in East Africa was a direct threat to the security of the Congo, however some Belgian officials viewed the fighting in East Africa as a way of expanding Belgian territory.[12] The Colonial Minister, Jules Renkin, was particularly keen on trading territory gained in East Africa with the Portuguese to expand the Congo's western coastline in a post-war settlement.[12] A successful campaign in Africa was also seen as a way for the De Broqueville government to avenge the German invasion of Belgium.

Outbreak of war in eastern Africa edit

In the European theatre, Britain declared war on Germany on 4 August 1914 following the German invasion of neutral Belgium. In Africa, however, the Congo Act of 1885 meant that colonies could chose to remain neutral, even in even of war breaking out in Europe.Heinrich Schnee, Governor of German East Africa, hoped to prevent war breaking out on the continent. The Belgian Congo announced its intention to remain neutral on 9 August.[13]

 
British Camel troops in British Somaliland, 1913.

The Congo Act was first broken by the British.[14] On 5 August 1914, troops from the Uganda protectorate assaulted German river outposts near Lake Victoria, and on 8 August a direct naval attack commenced when the Royal Navy warships HMS Astraea and Pegasus bombarded Dar es Salaam from several miles offshore.[15] In response, the commander of the German forces in East Africa, Lieutenant-Colonel Paul Emil von Lettow-Vorbeck, bypassed Governor Schnee, nominally his superior, and began to organize his troops for battle.[6]

The Germans launched a preemptive attack on Belgian shipping in Lake Tanganyika on 22 August, bringing the Congo into the conflict.[16] The German military also attacked Portuguese East Africa, against the wishes of the German colonial administration, who were able to persuade the Portuguese colony to remain neutral. Despite this, Portuguese East Africa provided assistance to the allies and eventually entered the war officially in March 1916 when Portugal declared war on Germany.[17]

In eastern Africa, the outbreak of war was received with little enthusiasm among the black majority. The future rebel leader John Chilembwe appealed to the British government not to recruit "my brothers who do not know the cause of your fight, who indeed, [sic] have nothing to do with it."[18] Among the white population, however, news of the outbreak of war was received with more enthusiasm. In British colonies of the region, a patriotic fervor led to the formation of numerous (white-only) volunteer units such as Wessel's Scouts and Wavell's Arabs.[6] In German East Africa, however, the white population feared that the war might loosen their control of the territory and possibly lead to revolt.

In October 1914, the Belgian and British authorities held a Conference at Kabati, in which they agreed to cooperate militarily and to wait until both parties were ready before launching an offensive.[19] Although the French offered to send troops from Madagascar to fight in East Africa, the British feared that the French would use their presence to support claim to territory in East Africa after the war, and refused.

Campaign in German East Africa edit

Border skirmishes, 1914-16 edit

On 15 August, German Askari forces stationed in the Neu Moshi region engaged in their first offensive of the campaign. Taveta in British East Africa, on the far side of Mount Kilimanjaro, fell to 300 German askaris. The British fired a token volley and retreated.[20] In September, the Germans began to stage raids deeper into British East Africa and Uganda Protectorate. In Lake Victoria, German naval power was limited to Hedwig von Wissmann and Kingani, a tugboat armed with one small "pom-pom" gun. In response, the British armed the Uganda Railway lake steamers SS William Mackinnon, SS Kavirondo, Winifred and Sybil as improvised gunboats. The German tug was cornered and later scuttled, giving the British total control of the lake.[21][22]

 
10 pounder gun of the Indian Army in East Africa, 1914

On 18 September 1914, a German motorboat crossed Lake Kivu and captured two Belgian ships removing the threat to the German coast of the lake.[13] On 23 September, a small German patrol crossed the lake and captured a Belgian defensive post, whose garrison were not aware of the outbreak of war, at Idjwi island giving it full control of the lake.[13] The Idjwi expedition was the furthest West that the Germans were able to advance during the conflict.[13] The most important attack was directed against Luvungi in 1915, which failed but inflicted heavy casualties.[23] The Belgians massively overestimated the strength of German forces in Ruanda-Urundi, and so held back from launching an full invasion.[24] Belgian attacks were small and largely unsuccessful; several small-scale expeditions against the strategic Kisenyi outpost in Ruanda were launched unsuccessfully between 1914 and January 1916.

The Germans used the collaboration of the Mwami (King) of Rwanda, Yuhi V, to stir up discontent among the Tutsi ethnic group in Kigezi in Uganda.[25] This led to a riot in the region and the camp of the British Assistant District Commissioner was burnt down.

November 1914 offensive edit

Main articles: Battle of Tanga and Battle of Kilimanjaro

In order to stop German raids into East Africa, the British devised a plan to capture the entire northern region of the German colony, where most of the colony's white settler population was based. The British command devised a two-pronged plan. The 8,000-strong Indian Expeditionary Force "B" would carry out an amphibious landing at Tanga on 2 November 1914 to capture the city, leaving the Allies in control of the Indian Ocean terminus of the Usambara Railway. In the Kilimanjaro area, the Force "C" of 4,000 men would advance from British East Africa on Neu-Moshi on 3 November 1914 to capture western terminus of the railway. After capturing Tanga, Force B would rapidly move north-west, join Force C and mop up what remained of the broken German forces.

In two separate battles at Tanga and at Kilimanjaro in early November 1914, the British force launched the plan. Despite outnumbering the Germans 8:1 at Tanga and 4:1 at Kilimanjaro, the offensive was a failure.[26] The contemporary British historian, C. Hordern, described the events as one of "the most notable failures in British military history."[27]

Naval war edit

Realising before the war that the German navy would not be large enough to challenge the Royal Navy's power at the outbreak of war, the Germans planned the so-called Kreuzerkrieg ("Cruiser war") strategy. The plan called for German cruisers to be strategically placed in ports around the world which, on the outbreak of war, would be able to launch attacks on crucial British trade routes where the Royal Navy was weakest.[28]

The German naval command had just one major warship in region at the outbreak of war, the light cruiser SMS Königsberg.[16] After limited opportunities for commerce raiding, Königsberg sank the aging British cruiser HMS Pegasus in a battle off British-controlled Zanzibar. Königsberg then withdrew into its temporary base in the Rufiji River delta. Although the British Cape Squadron were able to blockade it in October 1914, they were unable to fire on it while the Germans gained from having the British fleet tied down.[29] Only in July 1915, two monitors with shallow-draught and 6 in (150 mm) guns were brought from England and destroyed the cruiser in July 1915.[29] The Königsberg's 4.1 in (100 mm) guns were salvaged and taken over by the Schutztruppen who used them as field artillery.

Allied offensives, 1916 edit

Belgian invasion of Ruanda-Urundi edit

 
Belgian Force Publique troops in East Africa

In preparation for their invasion, the Belgians built up an army along the Ruanda-Urundi border while they attempted to secure their supply lines through the difficult terrain of the Congo. The force reaching a total of 7,700 before the invasion, greatly outnumbering the 1,600 Germans soldiers garrisoning the Ruanda-Urundi region.[30] The Belgian force, under the overall command of General Charles Tombeur, was divided into two columns; the first was based north of Lake Kivu, and the second along the Ruzizi River to the south.[30] On 19 April 1916, the Belgians began an offensive into Ruanda, followed by an invasion of Urundi on 1 June.[31] The whole region fell between April-May 1916 as the Germans withdrew in the face of the Belgian and British advance.[32] The German troops in the region, commanded by Kurt Wahle, withdrew to the railway junction of Tabora (in modern-day Tanzania) as the British and Belgians advanced from the north and west.[33] The Belgian advance was slowed by heavy rain and poor quality roads, which meant that the German troops were not forced to fight any major battles during the retreat. By 27 June, the whole of Ruanda-Urundi had been captured.[34] The Belgians continued to advance as far as Ujiji and managed to capture a significant part of the important Central Railway Line in Tanzania.[35] On 19 September, the Belgians finally took Tabora and, since they had accomplished their objective of protecting the Congo, they refused to participate any further in the campaign.[35]

  • The Belgian government intended to set up a Military Authority in Ruanda-Urundi, which could be used as a bargaining tool in a future post-war peace settlement.[33]

British offensive edit

Attempted Portuguese offensive edit

Portugal entered the war in March 1916, bringing Portuguese East Africa into the conflict officially.[17] In April 1916, the Portuguese attacked and occupied the small Kionga triangle in the south-east of German East Africa. In retaliation, the Germans attacked several Portuguese posts in Ruvuma along the border.[17] 4,600 troops, under Jose Cesar Ferreira Gil, arrived in Portuguese East Africa as reenforcements in July. The British, however, distrusted Portuguese ambitions and refused them permission to launch an offensive on the important town of Lindi.[36] In October 1916, the Portuguese nevertheless launched an offensive and, despite suffering considerable losses to Malaria and other diseases, besieged Newala.[36] The Germans, under the former Captain of the Köningsburg Max Looff, however, succeeded in nearly encircling the besieging force and the Portuguese were forced to retreat.[36]

Last years, 1917-18 edit

  • Attempted resupply by L.59 in November 1917, which traveled over 4,200 mi (6,800 km) in 95 hours.

German invasion of Portuguese East Africa edit

  • When Germans invade Portuguese territory, they effectively lose their colony[37]
  • Does not take advantage of the native rebellions and indeed helps to suppress them.[38]

German surrender edit

On 12 November 1918, the last fighting of World War I occurred in eastern Africa.[39] On 13 November, Von Lettow was informed of the signing of the Armistice and ordered to cease fighting.[39] The formal surrender of Von Lettow's remaining troops occurred in Abercorn in Northern Rhodesia on 25 November 1918. Despite the heavy fighting and desertions, the German force that surrendered numbered 155 Europeans and 1,156 blacks.[39]

Other theatres in eastern Africa edit

See also: Anglo-Somali War

In January 1915, an anti-colonial rebellion, known as the Chilembwe Uprising, broke out in the Shire Highlands of British Nyasaland (modern-day Malawi). Before the outbreak of the rebellion, its leader John Chilembwe appealed to the Germans in East Africa for support however the messanger was intercepted and the Germans were never able to support the insurrection.[40] Chilembwe's force of around 100 rebels, who famously intended to "strike a blow and die", were motivated by the perceived abuses of the colonial system and were also motivated by Millenarianism belief.[41] The rebels attacked a white-owned plantation and burned down a missionary station. The British enforced martial law and put down the rebellion with force. Chilembwe was killed, and most of his followers were executed in the aftermath.

In 1917, two revolt broke out in Portuguese East Africa. In the west, a revolt broke out among the Barue people while another broke out among the Makombe in the far north. The Barue rebellion succeeded in extending its control across the whole Zambezi valley, in an event which has been described as the "greatest military accomplishment" of any African anti-colonial movement of the period.[42] The Makombe rebels numbered approximately 20,000, and the Portuguese were forced to use an informal force of 10-15,000 Ngoni to put to the rebellion who were paid in whatever they could loot from the region.[43] By the end of 1917, the Makombe rebellion had been suppressed.[43]

Aftermath edit

Devastation edit

In 1913, 1/3 of the territory of Tanganyika had been uninhabitable wilderness where Sleeping sickness, carried by the Tsetse fly, made human and animal inhabitation impossible. By 1923, largely as a result of the fighting during the war, 2/3 of the entire country were uninhabitable.[44] Its sisal industry, which covered just 1% of the territory's area, did not recover until the late 1920s, when it was revived by the immigrants from Greece, India and Britain.[44] Its value remained well below that of comparable East African exports and the territory remained extremely poor.[45]

  • Postwar disease ravages the Tanganyikan population.[45]

Casualties edit

  • Approximately 100,000 of the 700,000 porters mobilized in East Africa died.[44]

Territorial re-division edit

At the end of the war, the territory of German East Africa was under military occupation by the Allied Powers. The future of East Africa, together with the rest of the former German Empire, was one of the objects for discussion at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919.[46] The British were keen to get the territory, in order to complete the "Cape to Cairo Red Line".[47] In a concession to the American demand for self-determination, even in colonial Africa, and to prevent squabbling between the Allied powers, it was agreed that the territories would become "Mandates" rather than "Colonies." The components of German East Africa were to become Class B Mandates of the new League of Nations.[48] After much debate, the bulk of the former colony, Tanganyika Territory, was allocated to the United Kingdom, Ruanda-Urundi to Belgium, and the tiny Kionga Triangle became a mandate of Portugal.[49]

Analysis edit

  • The total cost of the campaign to Britain alone was as high as £72 million (as much as £2 billion today).[26]
  • The fighting in East Africa led to an export boom in British East Africa, and in increase in the political influence of the colony's small white population.[50] In 1914, the territory's economy was in decline, but because of emergency legislation giving white farmers control over previously black-owned land in 1915, exports rose from £3.35 million to £5.9 million by 1916.[50] Above all, this increase, which was mostly due to products like raw cotton or tea, increased the whites' control of the economy from 14% to 70% by 1919.[50]
  • According to Hew Strachan, the German force "could easily have sustained itself well into 1919" when it surrendered in November 1918.[39] Strachan, however, considers that Von Lettow's success in keeping Allied troops in Africa was less important than has often been thought. In Strachan's judgment, the existence of a theatre of war in Africa as "a convenience rather than an embaressment" for the Allies because it allowed them to use their colonial armies and deprive the Germans of resources.[51] Although approximately 160,000 Allied soldiers, mostly Africans, served in the theatre during the course of the campaign, it is unlikely that the colonial powers would ever have sent them to fight on the Western Front because of the prevailing racial policy of the time.[4]
  • According to Anne Samson, the main cause of the campaign was the British desire to dismantle the German empire, but gaining territory was only a secondary objective.[52] British objectives only became more clearly determined between 1915 and 1917.[53] Samson also considers that, after the outbreak of war in Europe, it would have been impossible for conflict not to spread to Africa.[54]

Notes edit

  1. ^ In other languages: German: Kämpfe in Ostafrika; French: Campagne d'Afrique de l'Est; Swahili: Kampeni za Afrika ya Mashariki.

References edit

  1. ^ Chappell 2005, pp. 21–2.
  2. ^ Chappell 2005, p. 22.
  3. ^ Chappell 2005, p. 23.
  4. ^ a b Strachan 2004, pp. 182–3.
  5. ^ a b Chappell 2005, p. 26-7.
  6. ^ a b c d Chappell 2005, p. 11.
  7. ^ a b c Roger Louis 1963, p. 207.
  8. ^ Anderson 2004, p. 27.
  9. ^ Anderson 2004, p. 21.
  10. ^ Roger Louis 1963, pp. 207–8.
  11. ^ a b Roger Louis 1963, p. 208.
  12. ^ a b Strachan 2004, p. 112.
  13. ^ a b c d Roger Louis 1963, p. 209.
  14. ^ Garfield 2007, p. 84.
  15. ^ Miller 1974, p. 42.
  16. ^ a b Strachan 2004, p. 100.
  17. ^ a b c Strachan 2004, p. 161.
  18. ^ Rotberg 1967, pp. 33–4.
  19. ^ Roger Louis 1963, p. 214.
  20. ^ Miller 1974, p. 43.
  21. ^ Hordern 1941, pp. 28, 55.
  22. ^ Miller 1974, p. 195.
  23. ^ Roger Louis 1963, pp. 211–2.
  24. ^ Roger Louis 1963, pp. 210–1.
  25. ^ Roger Louis 1963, p. 213.
  26. ^ a b Chappell 2005, p. 12.
  27. ^ Farwell 1989, p. 178.
  28. ^ Anderson 2004, p. 16.
  29. ^ a b Strachan 2004, pp. 116–7.
  30. ^ a b Roger Louis 1963, p. 219.
  31. ^ Samson 2013, p. 23.
  32. ^ Roger Louis 1963, pp. 217–9.
  33. ^ a b Roger Louis 1963, pp. 216–7.
  34. ^ Roger Louis 1963, pp. 221.
  35. ^ a b Roger Louis 1963, pp. 222. Cite error: The named reference "FOOTNOTERoger Louis1963222" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  36. ^ a b c Strachan 2004, p. 162.
  37. ^ Samson 2006, p. 147.
  38. ^ Strachan 2004, p. 177.
  39. ^ a b c d Strachan 2004, p. 182.
  40. ^ Rotberg 1967, pp. 51–2.
  41. ^ Rotberg 1967, p. xxii-xxiv.
  42. ^ Adu Boahen et al. 1990, p. 93.
  43. ^ a b Strachan 2004, pp. 176–7.
  44. ^ a b c Lonsdale 1999, p. 535.
  45. ^ a b Lonsdale 1999, pp. 532–35.
  46. ^ Samson 2006, pp. 149–50.
  47. ^ Samson 2006, p. 150.
  48. ^ Samson 2006, p. 155.
  49. ^ Samson 2006, p. 166.
  50. ^ a b c Strachan 2004, p. 115.
  51. ^ Strachan 2004, p. 183.
  52. ^ Samson 2006, p. 171.
  53. ^ Samson 2006, p. 174-5.
  54. ^ Samson 2006, p. 172.

Bibliography edit

  • Roger Louis, Wm. (1963). Ruanda-Urundi, 1884-1919. Oxford: Clarendon Press. OCLC 445674.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)
  • Strachan, Hew (2004). The First World War in Africa. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0199257280.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)
  • Chappell, Mike (2005). The British Army in World War I. Vol. 3: The Eastern Fronts. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 9781841764016.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)
  • Anderson, Rose (2004). The Forgotten Front: The East Africa Campaign, 1914-1918. Stroud: Tempus Publishing. ISBN 9780752423449.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)
  • Rotberg, Robert I., ed. (1967). Strike a Blow and Die: A Narrative of Race Relations in Colonial Africa by George Simeon Mwase. Cambridge (Mass.): Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674429024. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |editorlink= ignored (|editor-link= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)
  • Adu Boahen, Albert; et al., eds. (1990). "African initiatives and resistance in Central Africa, 1880-1914". General History of Africa. UNESCO History of Africa. Vol. VII: Africa under Colonial Domination, 1880–1935 (Abridged ed.). Paris: James Currey. ISBN 0852550979. {{cite book}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |editor2= (help); Unknown parameter |editor1link= ignored (|editor-link1= suggested) (help)
  • Samson, Anne (2013). World War I in Africa: The Forgotten Conflict Among the European Powers. London: I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-78076-119-0.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)
  • Samson, Anne (2006). Britain, South Africa and the East Africa Campaign, 1914-1918: The Union Comes of Age. International Library of Colonial History 4. London: I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-84511-040-6.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)
  • Lonsdale, John (1999). "East Africa". In Roger Louis, Wm.; Brown, Judith M. (eds.). The Oxford History of the British Empire. Vol. IV: The Twentieth Century. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-820564-3. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |editor1link= ignored (|editor-link1= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |editor2link= ignored (|editor-link2= suggested) (help)

External links edit

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to East African Campaign (World War I).

Infobox data edit

  • At outbreak of war:
    • British: 2,400 men of KAR, [1]
    • Belgian: 15,000 men of FP[2]
    • Portuguese: 1,680 men[3]
    • German: 2,700 schutztruppen, 2,700 Landsturm[4]
  • 60,000 allied casualties of which 48,000 from disease[5]
  • By late 1915, Germans have 3,000 Europeans and 11,300 Askaris.[5]
  1. ^ Chappell 2005, pp. 21–2.
  2. ^ Chappell 2005, p. 22.
  3. ^ Chappell 2005, p. 23.
  4. ^ Chappell 2005, p. 26-7.
  5. ^ a b Chappell 2005, p. 12.

Pictures to use edit

  •  
    Map of the proposed Mittelafrika with German territory in yellow
  •  
    10 pounder gun of the Indian Army in East Africa, 1914
  •  
    German askaris, led by white officers
  •  
    German indigenous askaris
  •  
    German troops moving heavy artillery, 1916
  •  
    Belgian Force Publique troops in East Africa
  •  
    Von Lettow surrenders to British forces in Abercon (present-day Mbala), Northern Rhodesia
  •  
    Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck
  •  
    Stamp created for the Belgian occupation of Ruanda-Urundi in 1916. The text reads "German East Africa Belgian Occupation"
  •  
    British Camel troops in British Somaliland, 1913
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