Isotopes of iron

Isotopes of iron (₂₆Fe)
Standard atomic weight Ar°(Fe)
	55.845±0.002; 55.845±0.002 (abridged);
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Naturally occurring iron (₂₆Fe) consists of four stable isotopes: 5.845% of ⁵⁴Fe (possibly radioactive with a half-life over 4.4×10²⁰ years),^[4] 91.754% of ⁵⁶Fe, 2.119% of ⁵⁷Fe and 0.286% of ⁵⁸Fe. There are 28 known radioactive isotopes and 8 nuclear isomers, the most stable of which are ⁶⁰Fe (half-life 2.6 million years) and ⁵⁵Fe (half-life 2.7 years).

Much of the past work on measuring the isotopic composition of iron has centered on determining ⁶⁰Fe variations due to processes accompanying nucleosynthesis (i.e., meteorite studies) and ore formation. In the last decade however, advances in mass spectrometry technology have allowed the detection and quantification of minute, naturally occurring variations in the ratios of the stable isotopes of iron. Much of this work has been driven by the Earth and planetary science communities, although applications to biological and industrial systems are beginning to emerge.^[5]

List of isotopes

Nuclide ^{[n 1]}	Z	N	Isotopic mass (Da)^[6] ^{[n 2]}^{[n 3]}	Half-life^[1] ^{[n 4]}	Decay mode^[1] ^{[n 5]}	Daughter isotope ^{[n 6]}	Spin and parity^[1] ^{[n 7]}^{[n 4]}	Natural abundance (mole fraction)
Nuclide ^{[n 1]}	Excitation energy			Half-life^[1] ^{[n 4]}	Decay mode^[1] ^{[n 5]}	Daughter isotope ^{[n 6]}	Spin and parity^[1] ^{[n 7]}^{[n 4]}	Normal proportion^[1]	Range of variation
⁴⁵Fe	26	19	45.01547(30)#	2.5(2) ms	2p (70%)	⁴³Cr	3/2+#
					β⁺, p (18.9%)	⁴⁴Cr
					β⁺, 2p (7.8%)	⁴³V
					β⁺ (3.3%)	⁴⁵Mn
⁴⁶Fe	26	20	46.00130(32)#	13.0(20) ms	β⁺, p (78.7%)	⁴⁵Cr	0+
					β⁺ (21.3%)	⁴⁶Mn
					β⁺, 2p?	⁴⁴V
⁴⁷Fe	26	21	46.99235(54)#	21.9(2) ms	β⁺, p (88.4%)	⁴⁶Cr	7/2−#
⁴⁷Fe	26	21	46.99235(54)#	21.9(2) ms	β⁺ (11.6%)	⁴⁷Mn	7/2−#
⁴⁸Fe	26	22	47.980667(99)	45.3(6) ms	β⁺ (84.7%)	⁴⁸Mn	0+
⁴⁸Fe	26	22	47.980667(99)	45.3(6) ms	β⁺, p (15.3%)	⁴⁷Cr	0+
⁴⁹Fe	26	23	48.973429(26)	64.7(3) ms	β⁺, p (56.7%)	⁴⁸Cr	(7/2−)
⁴⁹Fe	26	23	48.973429(26)	64.7(3) ms	β⁺ (43.3%)	⁴⁹Mn	(7/2−)
⁵⁰Fe	26	24	49.9629880(90)	152.0(6) ms	β⁺	⁵⁰Mn	0+
⁵⁰Fe	26	24	49.9629880(90)	152.0(6) ms	β⁺, p?	⁴⁹Cr	0+
⁵¹Fe	26	25	50.9568551(15)	305.4(23) ms	β⁺	⁵¹Mn	5/2−
⁵²Fe	26	26	51.94811336(19)	8.275(8) h	β⁺	⁵²Mn	0+
^52mFe	6960.7(3) keV			45.9(6) s	β⁺ (99.98%)	⁵²Mn	12+
^52mFe	6960.7(3) keV			45.9(6) s	IT (0.021%)	⁵²Fe	12+
⁵³Fe	26	27	52.9453056(18)	8.51(2) min	β⁺	⁵³Mn	7/2−
^53mFe	3040.4(3) keV			2.54(2) min	IT	⁵³Fe	19/2−
⁵⁴Fe	26	28	53.93960819(37)	Observationally Stable^{[n 8]}			0+	0.05845(105)
^54mFe	6527.1(11) keV			364(7) ns	IT	⁵⁴Fe	10+
⁵⁵Fe	26	29	54.93829116(33)	2.7562(4) y	EC	⁵⁵Mn	3/2−
⁵⁶Fe^{[n 9]}	26	30	55.93493554(29)	Stable			0+	0.91754(106)
⁵⁷Fe	26	31	56.93539195(29)	Stable			1/2−	0.02119(29)
⁵⁸Fe	26	32	57.93327358(34)	Stable			0+	0.00282(12)
⁵⁹Fe	26	33	58.93487349(35)	44.500(12) d	β⁻	⁵⁹Co	3/2−
⁶⁰Fe	26	34	59.9340702(37)	2.62(4)×10⁶ y	β⁻	⁶⁰Co	0+	trace
⁶¹Fe	26	35	60.9367462(28)	5.98(6) min	β⁻	⁶¹Co	(3/2−)
^61mFe	861.67(11) keV			238(5) ns	IT	⁶¹Fe	9/2+
⁶²Fe	26	36	61.9367918(30)	68(2) s	β⁻	⁶²Co	0+
⁶³Fe	26	37	62.9402727(46)	6.1(6) s	β⁻	⁶³Co	(5/2−)
⁶⁴Fe	26	38	63.9409878(54)	2.0(2) s	β⁻	⁶⁴Co	0+
⁶⁵Fe	26	39	64.9450153(55)	805(10) ms	β⁻	⁶⁵Co	(1/2−)
⁶⁵Fe	26	39	64.9450153(55)	805(10) ms	β⁻, n?	⁶⁴Co	(1/2−)
^65m1Fe	393.7(2) keV			1.12(15) s	β⁻?	⁶⁵Co	(9/2+)
^65m2Fe	397.6(2) keV			418(12) ns	IT	⁶⁵Fe	(5/2+)
⁶⁶Fe	26	40	65.9462500(44)	467(29) ms	β⁻	⁶⁶Co	0+
⁶⁶Fe	26	40	65.9462500(44)	467(29) ms	β⁻, n?	⁶⁵Co	0+
⁶⁷Fe	26	41	66.9509300(41)	394(9) ms	β⁻	⁶⁷Co	(1/2-)
⁶⁷Fe	26	41	66.9509300(41)	394(9) ms	β⁻, n?	⁶⁶Co	(1/2-)
^67m1Fe	403(9) keV			64(17) μs	IT	⁶⁷Fe	(5/2+,7/2+)
^67m2Fe	450(100)# keV			75(21) μs	IT	⁶⁷Fe	(9/2+)
⁶⁸Fe	26	42	67.95288(21)#	188(4) ms	β⁻	⁶⁸Co	0+
⁶⁸Fe	26	42	67.95288(21)#	188(4) ms	β⁻, n?	⁶⁷Co	0+
⁶⁹Fe	26	43	68.95792(22)#	162(7) ms	β⁻	⁶⁹Co	1/2−#
					β⁻, n?	⁶⁸Co
					β⁻, 2n?	⁶⁷Co
⁷⁰Fe	26	44	69.96040(32)#	61.4(7) ms	β⁻	⁷⁰Co	0+
⁷⁰Fe	26	44	69.96040(32)#	61.4(7) ms	β⁻, n?	⁶⁹Co	0+
⁷¹Fe	26	45	70.96572(43)#	34.3(26) ms	β⁻	⁷¹Co	7/2+#
					β⁻, n?	⁷⁰Co
					β⁻, 2n?	⁶⁹Co
⁷²Fe	26	46	71.96860(54)#	17.0(10) ms	β⁻	⁷²Co	0+
					β⁻, n?	⁷¹Co
					β⁻, 2n?	⁷⁰Co
⁷³Fe	26	47	72.97425(54)#	12.9(16) ms	β⁻	⁷³Co	7/2+#
					β⁻, n?	⁷²Co
					β⁻, 2n?	⁷¹Co
⁷⁴Fe	26	48	73.97782(54)#	5(5) ms	β⁻	⁷⁴Co	0+
					β⁻, n?	⁷³Co
					β⁻, 2n?	⁷²Co
⁷⁵Fe	26	49	74.98422(64)#	9# ms [>620 ns]	β⁻?	⁷⁵Co	9/2+#
					β⁻, n?	⁷⁴Co
					β⁻, 2n?	⁷³Co
⁷⁶Fe	26	50	75.98863(64)#	3# ms [>410 ns]	β⁻?	⁷⁶Co	0+
This table header & footer: view

^ ^mFe – Excited nuclear isomer.
^ ( ) – Uncertainty (1σ) is given in concise form in parentheses after the corresponding last digits.
^ # – Atomic mass marked #: value and uncertainty derived not from purely experimental data, but at least partly from trends from the Mass Surface (TMS).
^ ^a ^b # – Values marked # are not purely derived from experimental data, but at least partly from trends of neighboring nuclides (TNN).
^ Modes of decay:

EC: Electron capture

IT: Isomeric transition

n: Neutron emission

p: Proton emission
^ Bold symbol as daughter – Daughter product is stable.
^ ( ) spin value – Indicates spin with weak assignment arguments.
^ Believed to decay by β⁺β⁺ to ⁵⁴Cr with a half-life of over 4.4×10²⁰ a^[4]
^ Lowest mass per nucleon of all nuclides; End product of stellar nucleosynthesis

Iron-54

⁵⁴Fe is observationally stable, but theoretically can decay to ⁵⁴Cr, with a half-life of more than 4.4×10²⁰ years via double electron capture (εε).^[4]

Iron-56

⁵⁶Fe is the most abundant isotope of iron. It is also the isotope with the lowest mass per nucleon, 930.412 MeV/c², though not the isotope with the highest nuclear binding energy per nucleon, which is nickel-62.^[7] However, because of the details of how nucleosynthesis works, ⁵⁶Fe is a more common endpoint of fusion chains inside supernovae, where it is mostly produced as ⁵⁶Ni. Thus, ⁵⁶Ni is more common in the universe, relative to other metals, including ⁶²Ni, ⁵⁸Fe and ⁶⁰Ni, all of which have a very high binding energy.

The high nuclear binding energy for ⁵⁶Fe represents the point where further nuclear reactions become energetically unfavorable. Because of this, it is among the heaviest elements formed in stellar nucleosynthesis reactions in massive stars. These reactions fuse lighter elements like magnesium, silicon, and sulfur to form heavier elements. Among the heavier elements formed is ⁵⁶Ni, which subsequently decays to ⁵⁶Co and then ⁵⁶Fe.

Iron-57

⁵⁷Fe is widely used in Mössbauer spectroscopy and the related nuclear resonance vibrational spectroscopy due to the low natural variation in energy of the 14.4 keV nuclear transition.^[8] The transition was famously used to make the first definitive measurement of gravitational redshift, in the 1960 Pound–Rebka experiment.^[9]

Iron-58

Iron-58 can be used to combat anemia and low iron absorption, to metabolically track iron-controlling human genes, and for tracing elements in nature.^[10]^[11] Iron-58 is also an assisting reagent in the synthesis of superheavy elements.^[11]

Iron-60

Iron-60 is an iron isotope with a half-life of 2.6 million years,^[12]^[13] but was thought until 2009 to have a half-life of 1.5 million years. It undergoes beta decay to cobalt-60, which then decays with a half-life of about 5 years to stable nickel-60. Traces of iron-60 have been found in lunar samples.

In phases of the meteorites Semarkona and Chervony Kut, a correlation between the concentration of ⁶⁰Ni, the granddaughter isotope of ⁶⁰Fe, and the abundance of the stable iron isotopes could be found, which is evidence for the existence of ⁶⁰Fe at the time of formation of the Solar System. Possibly the energy released by the decay of ⁶⁰Fe contributed, together with the energy released by decay of the radionuclide ²⁶Al, to the remelting and differentiation of asteroids after their formation 4.6 billion years ago. The abundance of ⁶⁰Ni present in extraterrestrial material may also provide further insight into the origin of the Solar System and its early history.

Iron-60 found in fossilised bacteria in sea floor sediments suggest there was a supernova in the vicinity of the Solar System approximately 2 million years ago.^[14]^[15] Iron-60 is also found in sediments from 8 million years ago.^[16] In 2019, researchers found interstellar ⁶⁰Fe in Antarctica, which they relate to the Local Interstellar Cloud.^[17]

The distance to the supernova of origin can be estimated by relating the amount of iron-60 intercepted as Earth passes through the expanding supernova ejecta. Assuming that the material ejected in a supernova expands uniformly out from its origin as a sphere with a surface area of 4πr². The fraction of the material intercepted by the Earth is dependent on its cross-sectional area (πR²_earth) as it passes through the expanding debris. Where M_ej is the mass of ejected material. $M_{\text{Fraction intercepted }}={\frac {\pi R_{\text{Earth }}^{2}}{4\pi r^{2}}}M_{ej}$ Assuming the intercepted material is distributed uniformly across the surface of the Earth (4πR²_earth), the mass surface density (Σ_ej) of the supernova ejecta on Earth is: $\Sigma _{ej}={\frac {M_{\text{Fraction intercepted }}}{A_{\text{surface,Earth }}}}={\frac {M_{ej}}{16\pi r^{2}}}$ The number of ⁶⁰Fe atoms per unit area found on Earth can be estimated if the typical amount of ⁶⁰Fe ejected from a supernova is known. This can be done by dividing the surface mass density (Σ_ej) by the atomic mass of ⁶⁰Fe. $N_{60}=\left({\frac {M_{ej,60}/m_{60}}{16\pi r^{2}}}\right)$ The equation for N₆₀ can be rearranged to find the distance to the supernova. $r={\sqrt {\frac {M_{ej,60}}{16\pi m_{60}N_{60}}}}$ An example calculation for the distance to the supernova point of origin is given below. This calculation uses speculative values for terrestrial ⁶⁰Fe atom surface density (N₆₀ ≈ 4 × 10¹¹ atoms²/m) and a rough estimate of the mass of ⁶⁰Fe ejected in a supernova explosion (10^-5 M_☉). $r={\sqrt {\frac {10^{-5}M_{\odot }}{16\pi \left(60m_{p}\right)N_{60}}}}$ $r=3\times 10^{18}m=100pc$ More sophisticated analyses have been reported that take into consideration the flux and deposition of ⁶⁰Fe as well as possible interfering background sources.^[18]

Cobalt-60, the decay product of iron-60, emits 1.173 MeV and 1.333 MeV as it decays. These gamma-ray lines have long been important targets for gamma-ray astronomy, and have been detected by the gamma-ray observatory INTEGRAL. The signal traces the Galactic plane, showing that ⁶⁰Fe synthesis is ongoing in our Galaxy, and probing element production in massive stars.^[19]^[20]

References

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S.; Audi, G. (2021). "The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear properties" (PDF). Chinese Physics C. 45 (3): 030001. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/abddae.
^ "Standard Atomic Weights: Iron". CIAAW. 1993.
^ Prohaska, Thomas; Irrgeher, Johanna; Benefield, Jacqueline; Böhlke, John K.; Chesson, Lesley A.; Coplen, Tyler B.; Ding, Tiping; Dunn, Philip J. H.; Gröning, Manfred; Holden, Norman E.; Meijer, Harro A. J. (2022-05-04). "Standard atomic weights of the elements 2021 (IUPAC Technical Report)". Pure and Applied Chemistry. doi:10.1515/pac-2019-0603. ISSN 1365-3075.
^ ^a ^b ^c Bikit, I.; Krmar, M.; Slivka, J.; Vesković, M.; Čonkić, Lj.; Aničin, I. (1998). "New results on the double β decay of iron". Physical Review C. 58 (4): 2566–2567. Bibcode:1998PhRvC..58.2566B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.58.2566.
^ N. Dauphas; O. Rouxel (2006). "Mass spectrometry and natural variations of iron isotopes". Mass Spectrometry Reviews. 25 (4): 515–550. Bibcode:2006MSRv...25..515D. doi:10.1002/mas.20078. PMID 16463281.
^ Wang, Meng; Huang, W.J.; Kondev, F.G.; Audi, G.; Naimi, S. (2021). "The AME 2020 atomic mass evaluation (II). Tables, graphs and references*". Chinese Physics C. 45 (3): 030003. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/abddaf.
^ Fewell, M. P. (1995). "The atomic nuclide with the highest mean binding energy". American Journal of Physics. 63 (7): 653. Bibcode:1995AmJPh..63..653F. doi:10.1119/1.17828.
^ R. Nave. "Mossbauer Effect in Iron-57". HyperPhysics. Georgia State University. Retrieved 2009-10-13.
^ Pound, R. V.; Rebka Jr. G. A. (April 1, 1960). "Apparent weight of photons". Physical Review Letters. 4 (7): 337–341. Bibcode:1960PhRvL...4..337P. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.4.337.
^ "Iron-58 Metal Isotope". American Elements. Retrieved 2023-06-28.
^ ^a ^b Vasiliev, Petr. "Iron-58, Iron-58 Isotope, Enriched Iron-58, Iron-58 Metal". www.buyisotope.com. Retrieved 2023-06-28.
^ Rugel, G.; Faestermann, T.; Knie, K.; Korschinek, G.; Poutivtsev, M.; Schumann, D.; Kivel, N.; Günther-Leopold, I.; Weinreich, R.; Wohlmuther, M. (2009). "New Measurement of the ⁶⁰Fe Half-Life". Physical Review Letters. 103 (7): 72502. Bibcode:2009PhRvL.103g2502R. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.103.072502. PMID 19792637.
^ "Eisen mit langem Atem". scienceticker. 27 August 2009. Archived from the original on 3 February 2018. Retrieved 22 May 2010.
^ Belinda Smith (Aug 9, 2016). "Ancient bacteria store signs of supernova smattering". Cosmos.
^ Peter Ludwig; et al. (Aug 16, 2016). "Time-resolved 2-million-year-old supernova activity discovered in Earth's microfossil record". PNAS. 113 (33): 9232–9237. arXiv:1710.09573. Bibcode:2016PNAS..113.9232L. doi:10.1073/pnas.1601040113. PMC 4995991. PMID 27503888.
^ Colin Barras (Oct 14, 2017). "Fires may have given our evolution a kick-start". New Scientist. 236 (3147): 7. Bibcode:2017NewSc.236....7B. doi:10.1016/S0262-4079(17)31997-8.
^ Koll, Dominik; et., al. (2019). "Interstellar ⁶⁰Fe in Antarctica". Physical Review Letters. 123 (7): 072701. Bibcode:2019PhRvL.123g2701K. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.123.072701. hdl:1885/298253. PMID 31491090. S2CID 201868513.
^ Ertel, Adrienne F.; Fry, Brian J.; Fields, Brian D.; Ellis, John (20 April 2023). "Supernova Dust Evolution Probed by Deep-sea 60Fe Time History". The Astrophysical Journal. 947 (2): 58–83 – via The Institute of Physics (IOP).
^ Harris, M. J.; Knödlseder, J.; Jean, P.; Cisana, E.; Diehl, R.; Lichti, G. G.; Roques, J. -P.; Schanne, S.; Weidenspointner, G. (2005-04-01). "Detection of γ-ray lines from interstellar 60Fe by the high resolution spectrometer SPI". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 433 (3): L49–L52. arXiv:astro-ph/0502219. Bibcode:2005A&A...433L..49H. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:200500093. ISSN 0004-6361.
^ Wang, W.; Siegert, T.; Dai, Z. G.; Diehl, R.; Greiner, J.; Heger, A.; Krause, M.; Lang, M.; Pleintinger, M. M. M.; Zhang, X. L. (2020-02-01). "Gamma-Ray Emission of 60Fe and 26Al Radioactivity in Our Galaxy". The Astrophysical Journal. 889 (2): 169. arXiv:1912.07874. Bibcode:2020ApJ...889..169W. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab6336. ISSN 0004-637X.

Isotope masses from:

Audi, Georges; Bersillon, Olivier; Blachot, Jean; Wapstra, Aaldert Hendrik (2003), "The NUBASE evaluation of nuclear and decay properties", Nuclear Physics A, 729: 3–128, Bibcode:2003NuPhA.729....3A, doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001

Isotopic compositions and standard atomic masses from:

de Laeter, John Robert; Böhlke, John Karl; De Bièvre, Paul; Hidaka, Hiroshi; Peiser, H. Steffen; Rosman, Kevin J. R.; Taylor, Philip D. P. (2003). "Atomic weights of the elements. Review 2000 (IUPAC Technical Report)". Pure and Applied Chemistry. 75 (6): 683–800. doi:10.1351/pac200375060683.
Wieser, Michael E. (2006). "Atomic weights of the elements 2005 (IUPAC Technical Report)". Pure and Applied Chemistry. 78 (11): 2051–2066. doi:10.1351/pac200678112051.
"News & Notices: Standard Atomic Weights Revised". International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. 19 October 2005.

Half-life, spin, and isomer data selected from:

Audi, Georges; Bersillon, Olivier; Blachot, Jean; Wapstra, Aaldert Hendrik (2003), "The NUBASE evaluation of nuclear and decay properties", Nuclear Physics A, 729: 3–128, Bibcode:2003NuPhA.729....3A, doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001
National Nuclear Data Center. "NuDat 2.x database". Brookhaven National Laboratory.
Holden, Norman E. (2004). "11. Table of the Isotopes". In Lide, David R. (ed.). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (85th ed.). Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8493-0485-9.