A country is a distinct part of the world, such as a state, nation, or other political entity. When referring to a specific polity, the term "country" may refer to a sovereign state, states with limited recognition, constituent country, or a dependent territory.[1][2][3][4] Most sovereign states, but not all countries, are members of the United Nations.[5] There is no universal agreement on the number of "countries" in the world since several states have disputed sovereignty status, limited recognition and a number of non-sovereign entities are commonly called countries.[6][5]
The definition and usage of the word "country" are flexible and has changed over time. The Economist wrote in 2010 that "any attempt to find a clear definition of a country soon runs into a thicket of exceptions and anomalies."[7]
Areas much smaller than a political entity may be referred to as a "country", such as the West Country in England, "big sky country" (used in various contexts of the American West), "coal country" (used to describe coal-mining regions), or simply "the country" (used to describe a rural area).[8][9] The term "country" is also used as a qualifier descriptively, such as country music or country living.[10]
Etymology
The word country comes from Old French contrée, which derives from Vulgar Latin (terra) contrata ("(land) lying opposite"; "(land) spread before"), derived from contra ("against, opposite"). It most likely entered the English language after the Franco-Norman invasion during the 11th century.[11][better source needed]
Definition of a country
In English the word has increasingly become associated with political divisions, so that one sense, associated with the indefinite article – "a country" – is now frequently applied as a synonym for a state or a former sovereign state. It may also be used as a synonym for "nation". Taking as examples Canada, Sri Lanka, and Yugoslavia. Cultural anthropologist Clifford Geertz wrote in 1997 that "it is clear that the relationships between 'country' and 'nation' are so different from one [place] to the next as to be impossible to fold into a dichotomous opposition as they are into a promiscuous fusion."[12]
Areas much smaller than a political state may be referred to as countries, such as the West Country in England, "big sky country" (used in various contexts of the American West), "coal country" (used to describe coal-mining regions in several sovereign states) and many other terms.[8] The word "country" is also used for the sense of native sovereign territory, such as the widespread use of Indian country in the United States.[13] The term "country" in English may also be wielded to describe rural areas, or used in the form "countryside." Raymond Williams, a Welsh scholar, wrote in 1975:[14]
'Country' and 'city' are very powerful words, and this is not surprising when we remember how much they seem to stand for in the experience of human communities. In English, 'country' is both a nation and a part of a 'land'; 'the country' can be the whole society or its rural area. In the long history of human settlements, this connection between the land from which directly or indirectly we all get our living and the achievements of human society has been deeply known.
The unclear definition of "country" in modern English was further commented upon by philosopher Simon Keller:[15]
Often, a country is presumed to be identical with a collection of citizens. Sometimes, people say that a country is a project, or an idea, or an ideal. Occasionally, philosophers entertain more metaphysically ambitious pictures, suggesting that a country is an organic entity with its own independent life and character, or that a country is an autonomous agent, just like you or me. Such claims are rarely explained or defended, however, and it is not clear how they should be assessed. We attribute so many different kinds of properties to countries, speaking as though a country can feature wheat fields waving or be girt by sea, can have a founding date and be democratic and free, can be English speaking, culturally diverse, war torn or Islamic.
— New Waves In Political Philosophy, "Making Nonsense of Loyalty to Country", page 96
Melissa Lucashenko, an Aboriginal Australian writer, expressed the difficulty of defining "country" in a 2005 essay, "Unsettlement":[16]
...What is this thing country? What does country mean? ... I spoke with others who said country meant Home, but who added the caveat that Home resided in people rather than places – a kind of portable Country... I tried to tease out some ways in which non-Indigenous people have understood country. I made categories: Country as Economy. Country as Geography. Country as Society. Country as Myth. Country as History. For all that I walked, slept, breathed and dreamed Country, the language still would not come.
Statehood
When referring to a specific polity, the term "country" may refer to a sovereign state, states with limited recognition, constituent country, or a dependent territory.[1][2][3] A sovereign state is a political entity that has supreme legitimate authority over a part of the world.[17] There is no universal agreement on the number of "countries" in the world since several states have disputed sovereignty status, and a number of non-sovereign entities are commonly called countries.[5][6] No definition is binding on all the members of the community of nations on the criteria for statehood.[18][6] State practice relating to the recognition of a country typically falls somewhere between the declaratory and constitutive approaches.[19][20][21][22][23] International law defines sovereign states as having a permanent population, defined territory, a government not under another, and the capacity to interact with other states.[24]
The declarative theory outlined in the 1933 Montevideo Convention describes a state in Article 1 as:[25][26]
- Having a permanent population
- Having a defined territory
- Having a government
- Having the ability to enter into relations with other states
The Montevideo Convention in Article 3 implies that a sovereign state can still be a sovereign state even if no other countries recognise that it exists.[25][27] As a restatement of customary international law, the Montevideo Convention merely codified existing legal norms and its principles,[28] and therefore does not apply merely to the signatories of international organizations (such as the United Nations),[6][29][26] but to all subjects of international law as a whole.[30][31] A similar opinion has been expressed by the European Economic Community,[32] reiterated by the European Union, in the principal statement of its Badinter Committee,[33] and by Judge Challis Professor, James Crawford.[29]
According to the constitutive theory a state is a legal entity of international law if, and only if, it is recognised as sovereign by at least one other country.[34] Because of this, new states could not immediately become part of the international community or be bound by international law, and recognised nations did not have to respect international law in their dealings with them.[35] In 1912, L. F. L. Oppenheim said the following, regarding constitutive theory:
International Law does not say that a State is not in existence as long as it is not recognised, but it takes no notice of it before its recognition. Through recognition only and exclusively a State becomes an International Person and a subject of International Law.[36]
In 1976 the Organisation of African Unity define state recognition as:[37]
..the recognition of an independent and sovereign state is an act of sovereignty pertaining each member of the international community, an act to be taken individually, and it is, therefore, up to member states and each OAU power [to decide] whether to recognise or not the newly independent state.
Some countries, such as Taiwan, Sahrawi Republic and Kosovo have disputed sovereignty and/or limited recognition among some countries.[38][39] Some sovereign states are unions of separate polities, each of which may also be considered a country in its own right, called constituent countries. The Danish Realm consists of Denmark proper, the Faroe Islands, and Greenland.[40] The Kingdom of the Netherlands consists of the Netherlands proper, Aruba, Curaçao, and Sint Maarten.[41] The United Kingdom consists of England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland.[42]
Dependent territories are the territories of a sovereign state that are outside of its proper territory. These include the overseas territories of New Zealand, the dependencies of Norway, the British Overseas Territories and Crown Dependencies, the territories of the United States, the external territories of Australia, the special administrative regions of China, the autonomous regions of the Danish Realm, Åland, Overseas France, and the Caribbean Netherlands. Some dependent territories are treated as a separate "country of origin" in international trade,[43][44] such as Hong Kong,[45][46][47] Greenland,[48] and Macau.[49]
Identification
Symbols of a country may incorporate cultural, religious or political symbols of any nation that the country includes. Many categories of symbols can be seen in flags, coats of arms, or seals.[50]
Name
Most countries have a long name and a short name.[51] The long name is typically used in formal contexts and often describes the country's form of government. The short name is the country's common name by which it is typically identified.[52][53][54][55] The International Organization for Standardization maintains a list of country codes as part of ISO 3166 to designate each country with a two-letter country code.[56] The name of a country can hold cultural and diplomatic significance. Upper Volta changed its name to Burkina Faso to reflect the end of French colonization, and the name of North Macedonia was disputed for years due to a conflict with the similarly named Macedonia region in Greece.[57] The ISO 3166-1 standard currently comprises 249 countries, 193 of which are sovereign states that are members of the United Nations.[58]
Flags
Originally, flags representing a country would generally be the personal flag of its rulers; however, over time, the practice of using personal banners as flags of places was abandoned in favor of flags that had some significance to the nation, often its patron saint. Early examples of these were the maritime republics such as Genoa which could be said to have a national flag as early as the 12th century.[59] However, these were still mostly used in the context of marine identification.[60]
Although some flags date back earlier, widespread use of flags outside of military or naval context begins only with the rise of the idea of the nation state at the end of the 18th century and particularly are a product of the Age of Revolution. Revolutions such as those in France and America called for people to begin thinking of themselves as citizens as opposed to subjects under a king, and thus necessitated flags that represented the collective citizenry, not just the power and right of a ruling family.[61][62] With nationalism becoming common across Europe in the 19th century, national flags came to represent most of the states of Europe.[61] Flags also began fostering a sense of unity between different peoples, such as the Union Jack representing a union between England and Scotland, or began to represent unity between nations in a perceived shared struggle, for example, the Pan-Slavic colors or later Pan-Arab colors.[63]
As Europeans colonized significant portions of the world, they exported ideas of nationhood and national symbols, including flags, with the adoption of a flag becoming seen as integral to the nation-building process.[64] Political change, social reform, and revolutions combined with a growing sense of nationhood among ordinary people in the 19th and 20th centuries led to the birth of new nations and flags around the globe.[65] With so many flags being created, interest in these designs began to develop and the study of flags, vexillology, at both professional and amateur levels, emerged. After World War II, Western vexillology went through a phase of rapid development, with many research facilities and publications being established.[66]
National anthems
A national anthem is a patriotic musical composition symbolizing and evoking eulogies of the history and traditions of a country or nation.[68] Though the custom of an officially adopted national anthem became popular only in the 19th century, some national anthems predate this period, often existing as patriotic songs long before designation as national anthem.[citation needed] Several countries remain without an official national anthem. In these cases, there are established de facto anthems played at sporting events or diplomatic receptions. These include the United Kingdom ("God Save the King") and Sweden (Du gamla, Du fria). Some sovereign states that are made up of multiple countries or constituencies have associated musical compositions for each of them (such as with the United Kingdom, Russia, and the Soviet Union). These are sometimes referred to as national anthems even though they are not sovereign states (for example, "Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau" is used for Wales, part of the United Kingdom).[69]
Other symbols
Patriotism
A positive emotional connection to a country a person belongs to is called patriotism. Patriotism is a sense of love for, devotion to, and sense of attachment to one's country. This attachment can be a combination of many different feelings, and language relating to one's homeland, including ethnic, cultural, political, or historical aspects. It encompasses a set of concepts closely related to nationalism, mostly civic nationalism and sometimes cultural nationalism.[70][71]
Economy
Several organizations seek to identify trends to produce economy country classifications. Countries are often distinguished as developing countries or developed countries.[72]
The United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs annually produces the World Economic Situation and Prospects Report classifies states as developed countries, economies in transition, or developing countries. The report classifies country development based on per capita gross national income (GNI).[73] The UN identifies subgroups within broad categories based on geographical location or ad hoc criteria. The UN outlines the geographical regions for developing economies like Africa, East Asia, South Asia, Western Asia, Latin America, and the Caribbean. The 2019 report recognizes only developed countries in North America, Europe, Asia, and the Pacific. The majority of economies in transition and developing countries are found in Africa, Asia, Latin America, and the Caribbean.[74]
The World Bank also classifies countries based on GNI per capita. The World Bank Atlas method classifies countries as low-income economies, lower-middle-income economies, upper-middle-income economies, or high-income economies. For the 2020 fiscal year, the World Bank defines low-income economies as countries with a GNI per capita of $1,025 or less in 2018; lower-middle-income economies as countries with a GNI per capita between $1,026 and $3,995; upper-middle-income economies as countries with a GNI per capita between $3,996 and $12,375; high-income economies as countries with a GNI per capita of $12,376 or more..[75]
It also identifies regional trends. The World Bank defines its regions as East Asia and Pacific, Europe and Central Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean, Middle East and North Africa, North America, South Asia, and Sub-Saharan Africa. Lastly, the World Bank distinguishes countries based on its operational policies. The three categories include International Development Association (IDA) countries, International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) countries, and Blend countries.[75]
See also
Notes
- ^ Each territory in the United States Minor Outlying Islands is labeled UM- followed by the first letter of its name and another unique letter if needed.
- ^ The following territories do not have ISO 3166-1 codes:
1: Akrotiri and Dhekelia
2: Ashmore and Cartier Islands
3: Coral Sea Islands
References
- ^ a b Fowler, Michael Ross; Bunck, Julie Marie (1996). "What constitutes the sovereign state?". Review of International Studies. 22 (4). Cambridge University Press (CUP): 381–404. doi:10.1017/s0260210500118637. ISSN 0260-2105. S2CID 145809847.
- ^ a b "Countries Not in the United Nations 2024". World Population by Country 2024 (Live). 26 June 1945. Retrieved 2 March 2024.
- ^ a b "Recognition and its Variants". academic.oup.com. Retrieved 2 March 2024.
- ^ Jones, J (1964). "What Makes a Country?". Human Events. 24 (31): 14.
- ^ a b c "Sovereign Nation 2024". World Population by Country 2024 (Live). Retrieved 21 January 2024.
- ^ a b c d Seguin, Denis (29 July 2011). "What makes a country?". The Globe and Mail. Retrieved 24 January 2024.
- ^ "In quite a state". The Economist. 8 April 2010. ISSN 0013-0613. Archived from the original on 24 August 2022. Retrieved 24 August 2022.
- ^ a b Simpson, John; Weiner, Edmund (eds.). "country, n.". Oxford English Dictionary (1971 compact ed.). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-861186-8.
- ^ "Definition of COUNTRY". Merriam-Webster. 29 February 2024. Retrieved 2 March 2024.
- ^ "country". Cambridge Dictionary. 28 February 2024. Retrieved 2 March 2024.
- ^ "Definition of COUNTRY". Merriam-Webster. Archived from the original on 5 August 2022. Retrieved 25 August 2022.
- ^ Geertz, Clifford (1997). "What is a Country if it is Not a Nation?". The Brown Journal of World Affairs. 4 (2): 235–247. ISSN 1080-0786. JSTOR 24590031.
- ^ Matal, Joseph (1 December 1997). "A Revisionist History of Indian Country". Alaska Law Review. 14 (2): 283–352. ISSN 0883-0568. Archived from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 19 October 2022.
- ^ Williams, Raymond (1973). The country and the city. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-519736-4. OCLC 624711. Archived from the original on 27 August 2022. Retrieved 23 August 2022.
- ^ Keller, Simon (2009). "Making Nonsense of Loyalty to Country". In De Bruin, Boudewijn; Zurn, Christopher F. (eds.). New waves in political philosophy. Basingstoke, England: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 96. ISBN 978-0-230-23499-4. OCLC 441874932. Archived from the original on 27 August 2022. Retrieved 23 August 2022.
- ^ Lucashenko, Melissa (1 January 2005). "Country: Being and belonging on aboriginal lands". Journal of Australian Studies. 29 (86): 7–12. doi:10.1080/14443050509388027. ISSN 1444-3058. S2CID 143550941.
- ^ Philpott, Daniel (1995). "Sovereignty: An Introduction and Brief History". Journal of International Affairs. 48 (2): 353–368. ISSN 0022-197X. JSTOR 24357595. Archived from the original on 7 August 2022. Retrieved 21 July 2022.
- ^ Bedjaoui, M. (1991). International Law: Achievements and Prospects. Democracy and power. Springer Netherlands. p. 47]. ISBN 978-92-3-102716-1. Retrieved 23 January 2024.
- ^ Shaw, Malcolm Nathan (2003). International law (5th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 369. ISBN 978-0-521-53183-2.
- ^ Cohen, Rosalyn (1961). "The Concept of Statehood in United Nations Practice". University of Pennsylvania Law Review. 109 (8): 1127–1171. doi:10.2307/3310588. JSTOR 3310588. S2CID 56273534.
- ^ Kelsen, Hans (1941). "Recognition in International Law: Theoretical Observations". The American Journal of International Law. 35 (4). American Society of International Law: 605–617. doi:10.2307/2192561. ISSN 0002-9300. JSTOR 2192561. S2CID 147309779. Retrieved 18 January 2024.
- ^ Lauterpacht, H. (1944). "Recognition of States in International Law". The Yale Law Journal. 53 (3). The Yale Law Journal Company, Inc.: 385–458. doi:10.2307/792830. ISSN 0044-0094. JSTOR 792830. Retrieved 18 January 2024.
- ^ "Principles of the Recognition of States" (PDF). Retrieved 18 January 2024.
- ^ Lowe, Vaughan (26 November 2015). "Nations under law". International Law: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University PressOxford. p. 1–18. doi:10.1093/actrade/9780199239337.003.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-923933-7.
- ^ a b "Montevideo Convention on the Rights and Duties of States" (PDF). Retrieved 18 January 2024.
- ^ a b "States, Sovereignty, Treaties". Encyclopedia Britannica. 26 July 1999. Retrieved 18 January 2024.
- ^ Caspersen, N.; Stansfield, G. (2012). Unrecognized States in the International System. Exeter Studies in Ethno Politics. Taylor & Francis. p. 55. ISBN 978-1-136-84999-2. Retrieved 18 January 2024.
- ^ D’Aspremont, Jean (29 August 2019). "Statehood and Recognition in International Law: A Post-Colonial Invention". The Global Community Yearbook of International Law and Jurisprudence 2018. Oxford University Press. pp. 139–152. doi:10.1093/oso/9780190072506.003.0005. ISBN 978-0-19-007250-6.
- ^ a b Crawford, James R. (15 March 2007). The Creation of States in International Law. Oxford University Press. pp. 2–11. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199228423.003.0002. ISBN 978-0-19-922842-3.
- ^ Harris, D.J. (ed) 2004 "Cases and Materials on International Law" 6th Ed. at p. 99. Sweet and Maxwell, London
- ^ Castellino, Joshua (2000). International Law and Self-Determination: The Interplay of the Politics of Territorial Possession With Formulations of Post-Colonial National Identity. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 77. ISBN 9041114092.
- ^ Castellino, Joshua (2000). International Law and Self-Determination: The Interplay of the Politics of Territorial Possession With Formulations of Post-Colonial National Identity. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 77. ISBN 978-90-411-1409-9.
- ^ The Badinter Arbitration Committee (full title), named for its chair, ruled on the question of whether the Republics of Croatia, Macedonia, and Slovenia, who had formally requested recognition by the members of the European Union and by the EU itself, had met conditions specified by the Council of Ministers of the European Community on December 16, 1991. "The Opinions of the Badinter Arbitration Committee: A Second Breath for the Self-Determination of Peoples". Archived from the original on 17 May 2008. Retrieved 10 May 2012.
- ^ "Statehood and Recognition". academic.oup.com. Retrieved 21 January 2024.
- ^ Hillier, Tim (1998). Sourcebook on Public International Law. Routledge. pp. 201–2. ISBN 978-1-85941-050-9.
- ^ Lassa Oppenheim, Ronald Roxburgh (2005). International Law: A Treatise. The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd. p. 135. ISBN 978-1-58477-609-3.
- ^ Talmon, S. (1998). Recognition of Governments in International Law: With Particular Reference to Governments in Exile. Oxford monographs in international law. Clarendon Press. p. 186. ISBN 978-0-19-826573-3. Retrieved 31 January 2024.
- ^ Kyris, George (2022). "State recognition and dynamic sovereignty". European Journal of International Relations. 28 (2): 287–311. doi:10.1177/13540661221077441. ISSN 1354-0661.
- ^ Allcock, John B.; Lampe, John R.; Young, Antonia (20 July 1998). "History, Map, Flag, Population, Languages, & Capital". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 29 January 2024.
- ^ "Greenland and the Faroe Islands". The Danish Parliament – EU Information Centre. 15 January 2020. Archived from the original on 9 February 2021. Retrieved 25 January 2021.
- ^ den Heijer, M.; van der Wilt, H. (2022). Netherlands Yearbook of International Law 2020: Global Solidarity and Common but Differentiated Responsibilities. T.M.C. Asser Press. p. 362. ISBN 978-94-6265-527-0. Retrieved 21 January 2024.
- ^ Barnett, H. (2023). Constitutional and Administrative Law. Taylor & Francis. p. 93. ISBN 978-1-000-91065-0. Retrieved 21 January 2024.
- ^ "Canadian Importers Database – Home". 23 November 2021. Archived from the original on 23 April 2022. Retrieved 17 April 2022.
- ^ "Consolidated federal laws of canada, General Preferential Tariff and Least Developed Country Tariff Rules of Origin Regulations". 20 June 2017. Archived from the original on 17 April 2022. Retrieved 17 April 2022.
- ^ "Made In The British Crown Colony". Thuy-Tien Crampton. Archived from the original on 7 April 2014.
- ^ "Matchbox label, made in Hong Kong". delcampe.net. Archived from the original on 1 April 2014.
- ^ "Carrhart Made In Hong Kong?". ContractorTalk. Archived from the original on 7 April 2014. Retrieved 28 May 2014.
- ^ "Product of Greenland Inland Ice Trademark of Inland Ice Denmark ApS. Application Number: 017910465 :: Trademark Elite Trademarks". Archived from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 14 September 2022.
- ^ "Hong Kong & Macau". International Trade Administration. 20 December 2019. Retrieved 31 January 2024.
- ^ "National symbol(s)". CIA. Retrieved 24 January 2024.
- ^ "United States Department of State". United States Department of State. 17 January 2024. Retrieved 29 January 2024.
- ^ "Publications Office – Interinstitutional Style Guide – Annex A5 – List of countries, territories and currencies". publications.europa.eu. Archived from the original on 28 May 2019. Retrieved 5 September 2020.
- ^ "UNGEGN World Geographical Names". Archived from the original on 28 July 2011. Retrieved 5 September 2020.
- ^ "FAO Country Profiles". Food and Agriculture Organization. Archived from the original on 2 February 2021. Retrieved 5 September 2020.
- ^ "Countries: Designations and abbreviations to use". Archived from the original on 4 January 2021. Retrieved 5 September 2020.
- ^ "ISO 3166 – Country Codes". ISO. Archived from the original on 8 March 2017. Retrieved 21 July 2022.
- ^ Savage, Jonathan (21 January 2018). "Why do names matter so much?". BBC News. Archived from the original on 21 July 2022. Retrieved 21 July 2022.
- ^ "Standard Classification of Countries and Areas of Interest (SCCAI) 2017". Statistics Canada. 12 March 2018. Retrieved 29 January 2024.
- ^ Barraclough 1971, pp. 7–8.
- ^ Devereux, E. (1994). Flags: The New Compact Study Guide and Identifier. Eyewitness books. Chartwell Books. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-7858-0049-1.
- ^ a b Nadler 2016.
- ^ Inglefield & Mould 1979, p. 48.
- ^ Bartlett 2011, p. 31.
- ^ Virmani 1999, p. 169.
- ^ Inglefield & Mould 1979, p. 50.
- ^ Xing 2013, p. 2.
- ^ M. de Bruin, "Het Wilhelmus tijdens de Republiek", in: L.P. Grijp (ed.), Nationale hymnen. Het Wilhelmus en zijn buren. Volkskundig bulletin 24 (1998), p. 16-42, 199–200; esp. p. 28 n. 65.
- ^ "National anthem – The World Factbook". Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on 5 August 2022. Retrieved 27 May 2021.
- ^ Harrison, Ellie (29 November 2022). "The history of the Welsh national anthem that's gripped the world". The Independent. Retrieved 29 January 2024.
- ^ Harvey Chisick (2005). Historical Dictionary of the Enlightenment. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0810865488. Archived from the original on 25 September 2014. Retrieved 3 November 2013.
- ^ "Nationalism (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)". Plato.stanford.edu. Archived from the original on 22 September 2018. Retrieved 3 November 2013.
- ^ Paprotny, Dominik (14 September 2020). "Convergence Between Developed and Developing Countries: A Centennial Perspective". Social Indicators Research. 153 (1). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 193–225. doi:10.1007/s11205-020-02488-4. ISSN 0303-8300. PMC 7487265. PMID 32952263.
- ^ Nations, United (20 September 2020). "What We Do". United Nations. Retrieved 29 January 2024.
- ^ "UN list of least developed countries". UNCTAD. 1 December 2023. Retrieved 29 January 2024.
- ^ a b "How does the World Bank classify countries?". World Bank Data. 1 July 2022. Retrieved 29 January 2024.
Works cited
- Barraclough, E.M.C. (1971). Flags of the World. Great Britain: William Cloves & Sons Ltd. ISBN 0723213380.
- Bartlett, Ralph G. C. (2011). Unity in Flags (PDF). 24th International Congress of Vexillology. Alexandria, Virginia: International Federation of Vexillological Associations. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 December 2022. Retrieved 12 December 2022.
- Inglefield, Eric; Mould, Tony (1979). Flags. Ward Lock. ISBN 978-0706356526.
- Nadler, Ben (14 June 2016). "Where Do Flags Come From?". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on 24 November 2021. Retrieved 24 November 2021.
- Virmani, Arundhati (August 1999). "National Symbols under Colonial Domination: The Nationalization of the Indian Flag, March-August 1923". Past & Present (164). Oxford University Press: 169–197. doi:10.1093/past/164.1.169. JSTOR 651278.
- Xing, Fei (2013). The Study of Vexillology in China (PDF). 25th International Congress of Vexillology. Rotterdam: International Federation of Vexillological Associations. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 June 2022. Retrieved 12 December 2022.
Further reading
- Defining what makes a country The Economist
External links
- The CIA World Factbook
- Country Studies from the United States Library of Congress
- Foreign Information by Country and Country & Territory Guides from GovPubs at UCB Libraries
- United Nations statistics division