User:SolsUnite/SolsUnite/neuroendocrine

neurotransmitter systems

Neurotransmitter systems
System	Origin ^[1]	Effects^[1]
Noradrenaline system	locus coeruleus	arousal reward
Noradrenaline system	Lateral tegmental field	arousal reward
Dopamine system	dopamine pathways: mesocortical pathway mesolimbic pathway nigrostriatal pathway tuberoinfundibular pathway	motor system, reward, cognition, endocrine, nausea
Serotonin system	caudal dorsal raphe nucleus	Increase (introversion), mood, satiety, body temperature and sleep, while decreasing nociception.
Serotonin system	rostral dorsal raphe nucleus
Cholinergic system	pontomesencephalotegmental complex	learning short-term memory arousal reward
	basal optic nucleus of Meynert
	medial septal nucleus

Category	Name	Abbreviation	Metabotropic	Ionotropic
Small: Amino acids	Aspartate		-	-
Neuropeptides	N-Acetylaspartylglutamate	NAAG	Metabotropic glutamate receptors; selective agonist of mGluR3	-
Small: Amino acids	Glutamate (glutamic acid)	Glu	Metabotropic glutamate receptor	NMDA receptor, Kainate receptor, AMPA receptor
Small: Amino acids	Gamma-aminobutyric acid	GABA	GABAB receptor	GABAA receptor, GABAC receptor
Small: Amino acids	Glycine	Gly	-	Glycine receptor
Small: Acetylcholine	Acetylcholine	Ach	Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor	Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor
Small: Monoamine (Phe/Tyr)	Dopamine	DA	Dopamine receptor	-
Small: Monoamine (Phe/Tyr)	Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)	NE	Adrenergic receptor	-
Small: Monoamine (Phe/Tyr)	Epinephrine (adrenaline)	Epi	Adrenergic receptor	-
Small: Monoamine (Phe/Tyr)	Octopamine		-	-
Small: Monoamine (Phe/Tyr)	Tyramine		-
Small: Monoamine (Trp)	Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine)	5-HT	Serotonin receptor, all but 5-HT3	5-HT3
Small: Monoamine (Trp)	Melatonin	Mel	Melatonin receptor	-
Small: Monoamine (His)	Histamine	H	Histamine receptor	-
PP: Gastrins	Gastrin		-	-
PP: Gastrins	Cholecystokinin	CCK	Cholecystokinin receptor	-
PP: Neurohypophyseals	Vasopressin		Vasopressin receptor	-
PP: Neurohypophyseals	Oxytocin		Oxytocin receptor	-
PP: Neurohypophyseals	Neurophysin I		-	-
PP: Neurohypophyseals	Neurophysin II		-	-
PP: Neuropeptide Y	Neuropeptide Y	NY	Neuropeptide Y receptor	-
PP: Neuropeptide Y	Pancreatic polypeptide	PP	-	-
PP: Neuropeptide Y	Peptide YY	PYY	-	-
PP: Opioids	Corticotropin (adrenocorticotropic hormone)	ACTH	Corticotropin receptor	-
PP: Opioids	Dynorphin		-	-
PP: Opioids	Endorphin		-	-
PP: Opioids	Enkephaline		-	-
PP: Secretins	Secretin		Secretin receptor	-
PP: Secretins	Motilin		Motilin receptor	-
PP: Secretins	Glucagon		Glucagon receptor	-
PP: Secretins	Vasoactive intestinal peptide	VIP	Vasoactive intestinal peptide receptor	-
PP: Secretins	Growth hormone-releasing factor	GRF	-	-
PP: Somtostatins	Somatostatin		Somatostatin receptor	-
SS: Tachykinins	Neurokinin A		-	-
SS: Tachykinins	Neurokinin B		-	-
SS: Tachykinins	Substance P		-	-
PP: Other	Bombesin		-	-
PP: Other	Gastrin releasing peptide	GRP	-	-
Gas	Nitric oxide	NO	-	-
Gas	Carbon monoxide	CO	-	-
Other	Anandamide	AEA	Cannabinoid receptor	-
Other	Adenosine triphosphate	ATP	P2Y12	P2X receptor

hypothalamic nuclei

^[2]^[3]^[4]

Hypothalamic nuclei

Region	Area	Nucleus	Function^[5]
Anterior	Medial	Medial preoptic nucleus	urinary bladder contraction Decreased heart rate Decreased blood pressure
		Supraoptic nucleus (SO)	oxytocin release vasopressin release
		Paraventricular nucleus (PV)	oxytocin release vasopressin release^[6]
		Anterior hypothalamic nucleus (AH)	thermoregulation panting sweating thyrotropin inhibition
		Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SC)	vasopressin release Circadian rhythms
	Lateral	Lateral preoptic nucleus
		Lateral nucleus (LT)	thirst and hunger
		Part of supraoptic nucleus (SO)	vasopressin release
Tuberal	Medial	Dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus (DM)	GI stimulation
		Ventromedial nucleus (VM)	satiety neurendocrine control
		Arcuate nucleus (AR) neurendocrine control
	Lateral	Lateral nucleus (LT)	thirst and hunger
	Lateral	Lateral tuberal nuclei
Posterior	Medial	Mammillary nuclei (part of mammillary bodies) (MB)	feeding reflexes
	Medial	Posterior nucleus (PN)	Increase blood pressure pupillary dilation shivering
	Lateral	Lateral nucleus (LT)

primary hypothalamic hormones

Name	Other Names	Abbreviations	Location	Function
Corticotropin-releasing hormone	Corticotropin-releasing factor, Corticoliberin	CRH, CRF	parvocellular neuroendocrine neurons in the paraventricular nucleus	with vasopressin, stimulates anterior pituitary to secrete ACTH
Dopamine	Prolactin-inhibiting hormone	DA, PIH	neuroendocrine neurons of the arcuate nucleus	inhibits secretion of prolactin from the anterior pituitary
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone	Luteinising-hormone releasing hormone	GnRH, LHRH	neuroendocrine neurons in the medial preoptic and arcuate nuclei	stimulates anterior pituitary to secrete LH and FSH
Growth hormone-releasing hormone	Growth-hormone-releasing factor, somatocrinin	GHRH, GHRF, GRF	arcuate nucleus neuroendocrine neurons	stimulates anterior pituitary to secrete growth hormone
Melatonin			suprachiasmatic nucleus
Somatostatin	Growth hormone-inhibiting hormone, Somatotropin release-inhibiting factor	SS, GHIH, SRIF	neuroendocrine neurons of the periventricular nucleus	inhibits secretion of growth hormone from the anterior pituitary
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone	Thyrotropin-releasing factor, Thyroliberin, Protirelin	TRH, TRF	parvocellular neuroendocrine neurons in the paraventricular and anterior hypothalamic nuclei	stimulates anterior pituitary to secrete TSH

Important human hormones

Spelling is not uniform for many hormones. Current North American and international usage is estrogen, gonadotropin, while British usage retains the Greek diphthong in oestrogen and favors the earlier spelling gonadotrophin (from trophē ‘nourishment, sustenance’ rather than tropē ‘turning, change’.

Structure	Name	Abbrev- iation	Tissue	Cells	Mechanism	Target Tissue	Effect
amine - tryptophan	Melatonin (N-acetyl-5-methoxytryptamine)		pineal gland	pinealocyte			antioxidant and causes drowsiness
amine - tryptophan	Serotonin	5-HT	CNS, GI tract	enterochromaffin cell			Controls mood, appetite, and sleep
amine - tyrosine	Thyroxine (or tetraiodothyronine) (a thyroid hormone)	T4	thyroid gland	thyroid epithelial cell	direct		less active form of thyroid hormone: increase the basal metabolic rate & sensitivity to catecholamines, affect protein synthesis
amine - tyrosine	Triiodothyronine (a thyroid hormone)	T3	thyroid gland	thyroid epithelial cell	direct		potent form of thyroid hormone: increase the basal metabolic rate & sensitivity to catecholamines, affect protein synthesis
amine - tyrosine (cat)	Epinephrine (or adrenaline)	EPI	adrenal medulla	chromaffin cell			Fight-or-flight response: Boosts the supply of oxygen and glucose to the brain and muscles (by increasing heart rate and stroke volume, vasodilation, increasing catalysis of glycogen in liver, breakdown of lipids in fat cells. dilate the pupils Suppress non-emergency bodily processes (e.g. digestion) Suppress immune system
amine - tyrosine (cat)	Norepinephrine (or noradrenaline)	NRE	adrenal medulla	chromaffin cell			Fight-or-flight response: Boosts the supply of oxygen and glucose to the brain and muscles (by increasing heart rate and stroke volume, vasoconstriction and increased blood pressure, breakdown of lipids in fat cells. Increase skeletal muscle readiness.
amine - tyrosine (cat)	Dopamine (or prolactin inhibiting hormone	DPM, PIH or DA	kidney, hypothalamus	Chromaffin cells in kidney Dopamine neurons of the arcuate nucleus in hypothalamus			Increase heart rate and blood pressure Inhibit release of prolactin and TRH from anterior pituitary
peptide	Antimullerian hormone (or mullerian inhibiting factor or hormone)	AMH	testes	Sertoli cell			Inhibit release of prolactin and TRH from anterior pituitary
peptide	Adiponectin	Acrp30	adipose tissue
peptide	Adrenocorticotropic hormone (or corticotropin)	ACTH	anterior pituitary	corticotrope	cAMP		synthesis of corticosteroids (glucocorticoids and androgens) in adrenocortical cells
peptide	Angiotensinogen and angiotensin	AGT	liver		IP3		vasoconstriction release of aldosterone from adrenal cortex dipsogen.
peptide	Antidiuretic hormone (or vasopressin, arginine vasopressin)	ADH	posterior pituitary	Parvocellular neurosecretory neurons in hypothalamus Magnocellular neurosecretory cells in posterior pituitary	varies		retention of water in kidneys moderate vasoconstriction Release ACTH in anterior pituitary
peptide	Atrial-natriuretic peptide (or atriopeptin)	ANP	heart		cGMP
peptide	Calcitonin	CT	thyroid gland	parafollicular cell	cAMP		Construct bone, reduce blood Ca²⁺
peptide	Cholecystokinin	CCK	duodenum				Release of digestive enzymes from pancreas Release of bile from gallbladder hunger suppressant
peptide	Corticotropin-releasing hormone	CRH	hypothalamus		cAMP		Release ACTH from anterior pituitary
peptide	Erythropoietin	EPO	kidney	Extraglomerular mesangial cells			Stimulate erythrocyte production
peptide	Follicle-stimulating hormone	FSH	anterior pituitary	gonadotrope	cAMP		In female: stimulates maturation of Graafian follicles in ovary. In male: spermatogenesis, enhances production of androgen-binding protein by the Sertoli cells of the testes
peptide	Gastrin	GRP	stomach, duodenum	G cell			Secretion of gastric acid by parietal cells
peptide	Ghrelin		stomach	P/D1 cell			Stimulate appetite, secretion of growth hormone from anterior pituitary gland
peptide	Glucagon	GCG	pancreas	alpha cells	cAMP		glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis in liver increases blood glucose level
peptide	Gonadotropin-releasing hormone	GnRH	hypothalamus		IP3		Release of FSH and LH from anterior pituitary.
peptide	Growth hormone-releasing hormone	GHRH	hypothalamus		IP3		Release GH from anterior pituitary
peptide	Human chorionic gonadotropin	hCG	placenta	syncytiotrophoblast cells	cAMP		promote maintenance of corpus luteum during beginning of pregnancy Inhibit immune response, towards the human embryo.
peptide	Human placental lactogen	HPL	placenta				increase production of insulin and IGF-1 increase insulin resistance and carbohydrate intolerance
peptide	Growth hormone	GH or hGH	anterior pituitary	somatotropes			stimulates growth and cell reproduction Release Insulin-like growth factor 1 from liver
peptide	Inhibin		testes, ovary, fetus	Sertoli cells of testes granulosa cells of ovary trophoblasts in fetus	anterior pituitary	Inhibit production of FSH
peptide	Insulin	INS	pancreas	beta cells	tyrosine kinase		Intake of glucose, glycogenesis and glycolysis in liver and muscle from blood intake of lipids and synthesis of triglycerides in adipocytes Other anabolic effects
peptide	Insulin-like growth factor (or somatomedin)	IGF	liver	Hepatocytes	tyrosine kinase		insulin-like effects regulate cell growth and development
peptide	Leptin	LEP	adipose tissue				decrease of appetite and increase of metabolism.
peptide	Luteinizing hormone	LH	anterior pituitary	gonadotropes	cAMP		In female: ovulation In male: stimulates Leydig cell production of testosterone
peptide	Melanocyte stimulating hormone	MSH or α-MSH	anterior pituitary/pars intermedia	Melanotroph	cAMP		melanogenesis by melanocytes in skin and hair
peptide	Orexin		hypothalamus				wakefulness and increased energy expenditure, increased appetite
peptide	Oxytocin	OXT	posterior pituitary	Magnocellular neurosecretory cells	IP3		release breast milk Contraction of cervix and vagina Involved in orgasm, trust between people.^[7] and circadian homeostasis (body temperature, activity level, wakefulness) ^[8].
peptide	Parathyroid hormone	PTH	parathyroid gland	parathyroid chief cell	cAMP		increase blood Ca²⁺: *indirectly stimulate osteoclasts Ca²⁺ reabsorption in kidney activate vitamin D (Slightly) decrease blood phosphate: (decreased reuptake in kidney but increased uptake from bones activate vitamin D)
peptide	Prolactin	PRL	anterior pituitary, uterus	lactotrophs of anterior pituitary Decidual cells of uterus			milk production in mammary glands sexual gratification after sexual acts
peptide	Relaxin	RLN	uterus	Decidual cells			Unclear in humans
peptide	Secretin	SCT	duodenum	S cell			Secretion of bicarbonate from liver, pancreas and duodenal Brunner's glands Enhances effects of cholecystokinin Stops production of gastric juice
peptide	Somatostatin	SRIF	hypothalamus, islets of Langerhans, gastrointestinal system	delta cells in islets Neuroendocrince cells of the Periventricular nucleus in hypothalamus			Inhibit release of GH and TRH from anterior pituitary Suppress release of gastrin, cholecystokinin (CCK), secretin, motilin, vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), gastric inhibitory polypeptide (GIP), enteroglucagon in gastrointestinal system Lowers rate of gastric emptying Reduces smooth muscle contractions and blood flow within the intestine ^[9] Inhibit release of insulin from beta cells ^[10] Inhibit release of glucagon from beta cells ^[10] Suppress the exocrine secretory action of pancreas.
peptide	Thrombopoietin	TPO	liver, kidney, striated muscle	Myocytes		megakaryocytes	produce platelets^[11]
peptide	Thyroid-stimulating hormone (or thyrotropin)	TSH	anterior pituitary	thyrotropes	cAMP	thyroid gland	secrete thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3)
peptide	Thyrotropin-releasing hormone	TRH	hypothalamus	Parvocellular neurosecretory neurons	IP3	anterior pituitary	Release thyroid-stimulating hormone (primarily) Stimulate prolactin release
steroid - glu.	Cortisol		adrenal cortex (zona fasciculata and zona reticularis cells)		direct		Stimulation of gluconeogenesis Inhibition of glucose uptake in muscle and adipose tissue Mobilization of amino acids from extrahepatic tissues Stimulation of fat breakdown in adipose tissue anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive
steroid - min.	Aldosterone		adrenal cortex (zona glomerulosa)		direct		Increase blood volume by reabsorption of sodium in kidneys (primarily) Potassium and H⁺ secretion in kidney.
steroid - sex (and)	Testosterone		testes	Leydig cells	direct		Anabolic: growth of muscle mass and strength, increased bone density, growth and strength, Virilizing: maturation of sex organs, formation of scrotum, deepening of voice, growth of beard and axillary hair.
steroid - sex (and)	Dehydroepiandrosterone	DHEA	testes, ovary, kidney	Zona fasciculata and Zona reticularis cells of kidney theca cells of ovary Leydig cellss of testes	direct		Virilization, anabolic
steroid - sex (and)	Androstenedione		adrenal glands, gonads		direct		Substrate for estrogen
steroid - sex (and)	Dihydrotestosterone	DHT	multiple		direct
steroid - sex (est)	Estradiol	E2	females: ovary, males testes	females: granulosa cells, males: Sertoli cell	direct		Females: Structural: promote formation of female secondary sex characteristics accelerate height growth accelerate metabolism (burn fat) reduce muscle mass stimulate endometrial growth increase uterine growth maintenance of blood vessels and skin reduce bone resorption, increase bone formation Protein synthesis: increase hepatic production of binding proteins Coagulation: increase circulating level of factors 2, 7, 9, 10, antithrombin III, plasminogen increase platelet adhesiveness Increase HDL, triglyceride, height growth Decrease LDL, fat deposition Fluid balance: salt (sodium) and water retention increase growth hormone increase cortisol, SHBG Gastrointestinal tract: reduce bowel motility increase cholesterol in bile Melanin: increase pheomelanin, reduce eumelanin Cancer: support hormone-sensitive breast cancers ^[12] Suppression of production in the body of estrogen is a treatment for these cancers. Lung function: promote lung function by supporting alveoli^[13]. Males: Prevent apoptosis of germ cells^[14]
steroid - sex (est)	Estrone		ovary	granulosa cells, Adipocytes	direct
steroid - sex (est)	Estriol		placenta	syncytiotrophoblast	direct
steroid - sex (pro)	Progesterone		ovary, adrenal glands, placenta (when pregnant)	Granulosa cells theca cells of ovary	direct		Support pregnancy^[15]: Convert endometrium to secretory stage Make cervical mucus permeable to sperm. Inhibit immune response, e.g. towards the human embryo. Decrease uterine smooth muscle contractility^[15] Inhibit lactation Inhibit onset of labor. Support fetal production of adrenal mineralo- and glucosteroids. Other: Raise epidermal growth factor-1 levels Increase core temperature during ovulation^[16] Reduce spasm and relax smooth muscle (widen bronchi and regulate mucus) Antiinflammatory Reduce gall-bladder activity^[17] Normalize blood clotting and vascular tone, zinc and copper levels, cell oxygen levels, and use of fat stores for energy. Assist in thyroid function and bone growth by osteoblasts Relsilience in bone, teeth, gums, joint, tendon, ligament and skin Healing by regulating collagen Nerve function and healing by regulating myelin Prevent endometrial cancer by regulating effects of estrogen.
sterol	Calcitriol (1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D₃)		skin/proximal tubule of kidneys		direct		Active form of vitamin D3 Increase absorption of calcium and phosphate from gastrointestinal tract and kidneys inhibit release of PTH
sterol	Calcidiol (25-hydroxyvitamin D₃)		skin/proximal tubule of kidneys		direct		Inactive form of Vitamin D3
eicosanoid	Prostaglandins	PG	seminal vesicle
eicosanoid	Leukotrienes	LT		white blood cells
eicosanoid	Prostacyclin	PGI2	endothelium
eicosanoid	Thromboxane	TXA2		platelets
	Prolactin releasing hormone	PRH	hypothalamus				Release prolactin from anterior pituitary
	Lipotropin	PRH	anterior pituitary	Corticotropes			lipolysis and steroidogenesis, stimulates melanocytes to produce melanin
	Brain natriuretic peptide	BNP	heart	Cardiac myocytes			(To a minor degree than ANP) reduce blood pressure by: reducing systemic vascular resistance, reducing blood water, sodium and fats
	Neuropeptide Y	NPY	Stomach				increased food intake and decreased physical activity
	Histamine		Stomach	ECL cells			stimulate gastric acid secretion
	Endothelin		Stomach	X cells			Smooth muscle contraction of stomach ^[18]
	Pancreatic polypeptide		Pancreas	PP cells			Unknown
	Renin		Kidney	Juxtaglomerular cells			Activates the renin-angiotensin system by producing angiotensin I of angiotensinogen
	Enkephalin		Kidney	Chromaffin cells			Regulate pain

^ ^a ^b Rang, H. P. (2003). Pharmacology. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. pp. page 474 for noradrenaline system, page 476 for dopamine system, page 480 for serotonin system and page 483 for cholinergic system. ISBN 0-443-07145-4. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
^ Diagram of Nuclei (psycheducation.org)
^ Diagram of Nuclei (universe-review.ca)
^ Diagram of Nuclei (utdallas.edu)
^ Unless else specified in table, then ref is: Guyton Eight Edition
^ Walter F., PhD. Boron. Medical Physiology: A Cellular And Molecular Approaoch. Elsevier/Saunders. ISBN 1-4160-2328-3. Page 840
^ Kosfeld M et al. (2005) Oxytocin increases trust in humans. Nature 435:673-676. PDF PMID 15931222
^ Scientific American Mind, "Rhythm and Blues"; June/July 2007; Scientific American Mind; by Ulrich Kraft
^ http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/endocrine/otherendo/somatostatin.html Colorado State University - Biomedical Hypertextbooks - Somatostatin
^ ^a ^b Nosek, Thomas M. "Section 5/5ch4/s5ch4_17". Essentials of Human Physiology. Archived from the original on 2016-03-24.
^ Kaushansky K. Lineage-specific hematopoietic growth factors. N Engl J Med 2006;354:2034-45. PMID 16687716.
^ Hormonal Therapy
^ Massaro D, Massaro GD (2004). "Estrogen regulates pulmonary alveolar formation, loss, and regeneration in mice". American Journal of Physiology. Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology. 287 (6): L1154–9. doi:10.1152/ajplung.00228.2004. PMID url=http://ajplung.physiology.org/cgi/content/full/287/6/L1154 15298854 url=http://ajplung.physiology.org/cgi/content/full/287/6/L1154. {{cite journal}}: Check |pmid= value (help); Missing pipe in: |pmid= (help)
^ Pentikäinen V, Erkkilä K, Suomalainen L, Parvinen M, Dunkel L. Estradiol Acts as a Germ Cell Survival Factor in the Human Testis in vitro. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 2006;85:2057-67 PMID 10843196
^ ^a ^b Placental Hormones
^ Nosek, Thomas M. "Section 5/5ch9/s5ch9_13". Essentials of Human Physiology. Archived from the original on 2016-03-24.
^ Hould F, Fried G, Fazekas A, Tremblay S, Mersereau W (1988). "Progesterone receptors regulate gallbladder motility". J Surg Res. 45 (6): 505–12. doi:10.1016/0022-4804(88)90137-0. PMID 3184927.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Diabetes-related changes in contractile responses of stomach fundus to endothelin-1 in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats Journal of Smooth Muscle Research Vol. 41 (2005) , No. 1 35-47. Kazuki Endo1), Takayuki Matsumoto1), Tsuneo Kobayashi1), Yutaka Kasuya1) and Katsuo Kamata1)

[Rang-1] Rang, H. P. (2003). Pharmacology. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. pp. page 474 for noradrenaline system, page 476 for dopamine system, page 480 for serotonin system and page 483 for cholinergic system. ISBN 0-443-07145-4. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)

[2] Diagram of Nuclei (psycheducation.org)

[3] Diagram of Nuclei (universe-review.ca)

[4] Diagram of Nuclei (utdallas.edu)

[5] Unless else specified in table, then ref is: Guyton Eight Edition

[boron840-6] Walter F., PhD. Boron. Medical Physiology: A Cellular And Molecular Approaoch. Elsevier/Saunders. ISBN 1-4160-2328-3. Page 840

[7] Kosfeld M et al. (2005) Oxytocin increases trust in humans. Nature 435:673-676. PDF PMID 15931222

[8] Scientific American Mind, "Rhythm and Blues"; June/July 2007; Scientific American Mind; by Ulrich Kraft

[Colorado-9] ttp://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/endocrine/otherendo/somatostatin.html Colorado State University - Biomedical Hypertextbooks - Somatostatin

[GP5417-10] Nosek, Thomas M. "Section 5/5ch4/s5ch4_17". Essentials of Human Physiology. Archived from the original on 2016-03-24.

[Kaushansky2006-11] Kaushansky K. Lineage-specific hematopoietic growth factors. N Engl J Med 2006;354:2034-45. PMID 16687716.

[12] Hormonal Therapy

[13] Massaro D, Massaro GD (2004). "Estrogen regulates pulmonary alveolar formation, loss, and regeneration in mice". American Journal of Physiology. Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology. 287 (6): L1154–9. doi:10.1152/ajplung.00228.2004. PMID url=http://ajplung.physiology.org/cgi/content/full/287/6/L1154 15298854 url=http://ajplung.physiology.org/cgi/content/full/287/6/L1154. {{cite journal}}: Check |pmid= value (help); Missing pipe in: |pmid= (help)

[14] Pentikäinen V, Erkkilä K, Suomalainen L, Parvinen M, Dunkel L. Estradiol Acts as a Germ Cell Survival Factor in the Human Testis in vitro. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 2006;85:2057-67 PMID 10843196

[colostate-15] Placental Hormones

[GeorgiaPhysiology-16] Nosek, Thomas M. "Section 5/5ch9/s5ch9_13". Essentials of Human Physiology. Archived from the original on 2016-03-24.

[17] Hould F, Fried G, Fazekas A, Tremblay S, Mersereau W (1988). "Progesterone receptors regulate gallbladder motility". J Surg Res. 45 (6): 505–12. doi:10.1016/0022-4804(88)90137-0. PMID 3184927.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[18] Diabetes-related changes in contractile responses of stomach fundus to endothelin-1 in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats Journal of Smooth Muscle Research Vol. 41 (2005) , No. 1 35-47. Kazuki Endo1), Takayuki Matsumoto1), Tsuneo Kobayashi1), Yutaka Kasuya1) and Katsuo Kamata1)

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