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Tunnel-like structures formed by erosion in Jinshitan Coastal National Geopark, Dalian, Liaoning Province, China

Over the past century, there has been a consistent global rise in sea levels, and projections suggest a significant acceleration due to ongoing climate change. By 2100, estimates indicate a rise of about 50 cm, posing substantial risks to most major cities located along coastlines globally [1]. For instance, a considerable proportion of Australia's population resides within proximity to the coastline, emphasizing the vulnerability of coastal regions to these changes [2].

The anticipated consequences of climate change on coastal areas include increased flooding frequency during storms, erosion of beaches, intrusion of saltwater into inland water sources, and heightened risks to urban water supplies [3]. Coastal erosion is a widespread issue, evident in various regions worldwide, including the United States, China, and other coastal areas [4].

Statistics reveal alarming rates of beach recession and shoreline retreat in multiple regions, with some areas experiencing drastic erosion, such as the Shandong Peninsula in China [5]. The compounded effects of rising sea levels and human-induced environmental stressors intensify the risks associated with coastal erosion, necessitating urgent attention from research institutions, coastal management entities, and local authorities to address these challenges [6]. The trajectory of global warming indicates a challenging road ahead, requiring concerted efforts from various stakeholders to mitigate the adverse effects on coastal regions.


The impact of global climate change on coastal erosion

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The impact of global climate change on coastal erosion is multifaceted and influenced by several key factors:

Sea Level Rise: The rising sea levels associated with climate change directly contribute to increased erosion along coastlines. Higher sea levels lead to more frequent and severe coastal flooding and storm surges, accelerating erosion rates [7].

Changes in Sediment Discharge: Alterations in sediment discharge patterns, often linked to human activities like damming rivers or altering natural water flow, can disrupt the natural replenishment of coastal sediment. This disturbance affects the stability of coastal landforms, exacerbating erosion Cite error: The <ref> tag has too many names (see the help page)..


Human activities

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Human activities significantly contribute to coastal erosion through various practices and interventions:

Coastal Development: Urbanization and building infrastructure along coastlines disrupt natural sediment flows and processes, causing increased erosion. Protective structures like seawalls can redirect wave energy, worsening erosion in adjacent areas [8].

Sand Mining: Extraction of sand from coastal areas depletes natural sediment reserves, accelerating erosion by limiting available sediment for replenishing eroded shorelines [9].

Deforestation and Wetland Destruction: Removing coastal vegetation weakens erosion defenses. Ecosystems like mangroves, dunes, and marshlands stabilize coastlines by absorbing wave energy and trapping sediments [10].

Tourism Impact: High tourist activity can accelerate erosion due to increased foot traffic and infrastructure demands [11].


Examples

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China

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China's extensive continental coastline, about one-third of which faces erosion, is impacted by a blend of natural and human-induced factors such as Tectonic Settings, Climate Variations, and Economic activities [12].

For Specific Regions:

Bohai Sea (46% erosion): Erosion exacerbated by industrial and urban development demands focused attention for effective mitigation strategies in this area.

Yellow Sea (49% erosion): Agricultural practices and industrialization intensify erosion here, requiring targeted measures to address these specific challenges.

East China Sea (44% erosion): Erosion influenced by economic growth and urbanization necessitates tailored strategies along this coastline.

South China Sea (21% erosion): While relatively less affected, sustainable management amidst economic activities and urban expansion is crucial to preserve this area.

Impact of Global Climate Change on Coastal Erosion in China:

Sea Level Change and Coastal Erosion: Shanghai - Vulnerable to rising sea levels, especially in low-lying areas along the East China Sea [13].

Storm Surges and Erosion: Guangzhou - Faces erosion threats due to its location on the Pearl River Delta, susceptible to sea level rise and intensified storms [14].

Coastal Vulnerability Zones: Beihai - Located on the southern coast near the Gulf of Tonkin, at risk of erosion and storm surges due to coastal exposure [15].

Regional Variability: Qingdao - Erosion concerns along its beaches; crucial for tourism and maritime industries, making erosion a significant issue [16].

Coastal Protection Measures in China To fortify its coastal defenses, China employs a combination of robust structures, including seawalls, dikes, and breakwaters, as pivotal measures in its comprehensive coastal protection strategy [12].


Netherlands

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The Netherlands, with its extensive 1000 km coastline divided into three regions, faces severe coastal erosion, with nearly half experiencing retreats of up to 5 kilometers over four centuries [17].

To counter this, the nation enacted the "Dynamic Preservation of the Coastline" policy in 1990, aiming to maintain the 1990 coastal position by doubling annual sand nourishment to 12 million cubic meters, a critical erosion-fighting strategy [18].

Yet, vulnerabilities persist. High safety standards demand continuous investment, especially against dune erosion, which sees a 20% reduction per meter rise in sea levels. Climate-induced changes in wind patterns and beach width further threaten dune stability [19].

The Wadden Sea, crucial for its intertidal flats and salt marshes, relies on sediment supply, presenting risks with accelerated sea-level rise and delta shrinkage potentially challenging future provisions. Projected sea-level rises between 0.41m to 0.76m by 2100, coupled with soil subsidence from various factors, raise immediate concerns. While low-end scenarios suggest manageable impacts until 2030, high-end forecasts signal noticeable effects by 2050, and extreme scenarios predict potential Wadden Sea drowning before 2100 [20].

The Netherlands' approach combines innovation, strategic planning, and intervention to combat erosion and mitigate rising sea levels. This comprehensive strategy sets a global precedent for coastal resilience, showcasing how innovation and strategic planning can address the challenges posed by coastal erosion and sea-level rise [21].



See also

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References

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  1. ^ Chen JY, Chen SL. Estuarine and coastal challenges in China. Mar Geol Lett 2002;18(1):1–5, [1]
  2. ^ Australian Bureau of Statistics. Regional population growth, Australia and New Zealand, 2001-02, Cat. No. 3218.0., [2]
  3. ^ IPCC. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Climate change 1995. The science of climate change. Cambridge University Press; 1996. p. 572., [3]
  4. ^ Devoy RJN. Implications of sea level rise for Ireland. In: Proceedings of the SURVAS expert workshop, ZMK University of Hamburg, 19–21 June 2000. p. 33–46., [4]
  5. ^ Zhuang ZY. Severe shoreline retreat of some straight sandy coasts in Shandong peninsula. J Ocean Univ Qingdao 1989;19(1):90–7
  6. ^ Qian CL. Effects of the water conservancy projects in the Luanhe River basin on the Luanhe River delta. Acta Geogr Sin 1994;49(2):158–66, [5]
  7. ^ Bruun, P.: 1962, ‘Sea-Level Rise as a Cause of Shore Erosion’, Journal Waterways and Harbors Division, 88, 117–130, [6]
  8. ^ Bulleri, F., & Chapman, M. G. (2010). The introduction of coastal infrastructure as a driver of change in marine environments. Journal of Applied Ecology, 47(1), 26-35, [7]
  9. ^ Masalu, D. C. (2002). Coastal erosion and its social and environmental aspects in Tanzania: a case study in illegal sand mining. Coastal Management, 30(4), 347-359, [8]
  10. ^ Hinrichsen, D. (2013). Coastal waters of the world: trends, threats, and strategies, [9]
  11. ^ Davenport, J., & Davenport, J. L. (2006). The impact of tourism and personal leisure transport on coastal environments: a review. Estuarine, coastal and shelf science, 67(1-2), 280-292, [10]
  12. ^ a b Cai, F., Su, X., Liu, J., Li, B., & Lei, G. (2009). Coastal erosion in China under the condition of global climate change and measures for its prevention. Progress in Natural Science, 19(4), 415-426, [11]
  13. ^ Wang, J., Gao, W., Xu, S., & Yu, L. (2012). Evaluation of the combined risk of sea level rise, land subsidence, and storm surges on the coastal areas of Shanghai, China. Climatic change, 115, 537-558, [12]
  14. ^ Kang, L., Ma, L., & Liu, Y. (2016). Evaluation of farmland losses from sea level rise and storm surges in the Pearl River Delta region under global climate change. Journal of Geographical Sciences, 26, 439-456, [13]
  15. ^ Feng, X., Tsimplis, M. N., & Woodworth, P. L. (2015). Nodal variations and long‐term changes in the main tides on the coasts of China. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans, 120(2), 1215-1232, [14]
  16. ^ Liu, J., Liu, N., Zhang, Y., Qu, Z., & Yu, J. (2019). Evaluation of the non-use value of beach tourism resources: A case study of Qingdao coastal scenic area, China. Ocean & coastal management, 168, 63-71, [15]
  17. ^ Ten Brinke, W. B., Kolen, B., Dollee, A., Van Waveren, H., & Wouters, K. (2010). Contingency planning for large‐scale floods in the Netherlands. Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management, 18(1), 55-69, [16]
  18. ^ De Ronde, J. G., Mulder, J. P. M., & Spanhoff, R. (2003, November). Morphological developments and coastal zone management in the Netherlands. In International Conference on Estuaries and Coasts November (pp. 9-11) [17]
  19. ^ van der Spek, A. J. (2018). The development of the tidal basins in the Dutch Wadden Sea until 2100: the impact of accelerated sea-level rise and subsidence on their sediment budget–a synthesis. Netherlands Journal of Geosciences, 97(3), 71-78, [18]
  20. ^ Ministry of Infrastructure and the Environment, and Ministry of Economic Affairs, Agriculture and Innovation, 2011. Delta Programme 2012. Working on the delta. Acting today, preparing for tomorrow. 76 pp, [19]
  21. ^ Wang, Z. B., Elias, E. P., van der Spek, A. J., & Lodder, Q. J. (2018). Sediment budget and morphological development of the Dutch Wadden Sea: impact of accelerated sea-level rise and subsidence until 2100. Netherlands Journal of Geosciences, 97(3), 183-214, [20]

Works cited

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  • IPCC (2014). Field, C. B.; Barros, V. R.; Dokken, D. J.; Mach, K. J.; et al. (eds.). Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-05807-1.
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Category:Coastal construction Category:Coastal engineering Category:Coastal geography Category:Geomorphology

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