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Scientific Manuscripts

The Scientific Manuscripts of Timbuktu

One of the most significant examples of scientific Islamic manuscripts comes from the Timbuktu Manuscripts. The creation of these manuscripts range from the 13th to the 20th century, with most of them being made during the Mali Empire (1230-1672). Within these manuscripts, there is discussion of several scientific concepts including mathematics, astronomy, astrology, and medicine. Although these are scientific manuscripts, many of them include poetic structure. One example of these scientific manuscripts is Manuscript no. 2262, a work that discusses ideas about astronomy. This manuscript discusses the intersection between solar and lunar calendars. More specifically, this manuscript instructs the reader on how to determine January first of the Islamic Lunar Year 1023. Additionally, the manuscript discusses the process of determining whether or not it is leap year. Another example is Manuscript no. 1045, entitled by scholars as "The Treatment of Illnesses, Internal and External." In this manuscript, the author discusses medical ideas such as: the use of plants for treating illnesses, the use minerals and their medicinal powers, and the use of animal organs in certain healing processes. Timbuktu Manuscripts are unique due to the sheer volume of manuscripts discovered and their wide range of concepts including concepts of philosophy that contradicted common ideas about Islamic Framework.

Religious Manuscripts

Evolution of Quranic Calligraphy and Technique

Manuscripts of the Quran have been created and copied since the Umayyad period (661-750.) Over the course of this period, copies of quranic manuscripts were produced in Damascus and were named the "Damascus papers." Some parts of the Damascus Papers contained hijazi script which was unique to each calligrapher's writing style. Hijazi script disregarded the use of short vowels and was created to serve as a memory aid to reciters. Manuscripts with Hijazi script also utilized the rules of scripto continua and displayed no decoration or ornamentation. Under the reign of Umayyad caliph, Abd-al-Malik (685-705), Quranic script was standardized and inserted onto other surfaces such as marble as a way to promote Arabic in the region. One example of marble inscription is seen inside the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem. When paper-making set its course towards central Asia, paper became the preferred material setting for Quranic manuscripts. The use of paper amplified the development of new writing styles and motivated calligraphers to heighten the manuscripts' aesthetic appeal. Kufic script had been used as the main style of scripture until about 1200. After the turn of the 13th century, calligraphers began to prefer writing styles such as naskh to transcribe the Qu'ran. Before the fourteenth century, calligraphers were responsible for both the text and illumination of Quranic manuscripts until the artwork became more complex and required its own specialist.

Structure and Order of Quranic Manuscripts

In the making of Quranic manuscripts, early calligraphers used a strict set of geometric rules. For example, each page had a space reserved for writing which was divided into perfectly equal and parallel lines depending on thickness of the pen. A set of key ratios was also used to determine the box's width and height. After the structure of the text box was determined, calligraphers followed an interline system to write out the script. Early Quranic manuscripts did not have a direct textual structure. To amplify oration and make recitation easier, illuminators created a decorative vocabulary. At first, the illuminators differentiated each sura by pairing it with a unique geometric band. Subsequently, a more complex system was put in place in order to organize the Qur'an's contents and help individuals read and recite the text. This system included motifs (aya), chapters (sura), and primary divisons (juz) that are seen between each thirty sections and organize the singular text into different parts. The Qur'an now contains 114 suras with a range of three to 268 verses.

Evolution of Illumination

Figure 1

During the recitation of Quranic manuscripts, the frontispiece was presented to the audience in order to display the beautiful illumination. These illuminations usually use geometry, and nature as inspiration and do display any sort of iconography due to the values of Islam. Early illuminators had to create the perfect sense of symbolism and ornamentation to represent each section of text without while keeping the text as the main focal point. In the eighth century, when the Qur'an was first produced as a codex, ornamentation was already included in the design. The entire frontispiece of the Qur'an usually contained illumination as well as the borders of the first few folios, the last folios, and the titles of each chapter in the text. The use of illuminated medallions also became popular after the tenth century to indicate each fifth and tenth verse within the text. Around the eleventh century, only the first and last folios out of the entire text were illuminated. The illuminations were typically applied in gold and incorporated geometric and vegetal designs. During the reign of the Mamluk and Ilkhanid dynasties (1250-1517), paper became more accessible and allowed for the production of larger scale Qur'ans. This influenced illuminators to add more complex designs and new motifs. Quranic manuscripts produced by Mamluks were noted for gilded foliate scrollwork as well as star-shaped and hexagonal motifs. The Ilkhanid dynasty was responsible for adapting their geometric vocabulary to different sized manuscripts and sense of lavishness in design. The Timurid dynasty (1370-1507) introduced a style of illumination that included fine gilded leaves and stems, red florets, and diamond shaped medallions on a dark-blue background. An example of this style of illumination is seen in this single-volume Qur'an that was made between 1480 and 1500. (Fig. 1) Manuscripts from the Safavid dynasty (1500-1700) are known for their fine golden and floral scroll illuminations with lapis backgrounds. Additionally, the Safavid dynasty were also known for the Shiraz manuscripts which were large in size and elaborate in design. Illuminators from the Ottoman Empire (1400-1700) were influenced by Timurid illumination and followed their gold and blue floral style. Ottoman illuminators also incorporated rose, hyacinth, tulip motifs into their illuminations. The Ottomans also built a manufacturing studio is Istanbul where illuminated Qur'ans were produced into the beginning of the twentieth century.