Turco-Mongol or the Turko-Mongol tradition was a cultural or ethnocultural synthesis that arose during the 14th century, among the ruling elites of mongol Empire successor states such as the Chagatai Khanate and Golden Horde. These elites adopted Islam, while retaining Mongol political and legal institutions.[1]
Historical Background edit
Pre-historic Times edit
In the prehistoric era, mankind with Shamanism faith first emigrated.[2] With the innovations that occurred during the Neolithic Age, human beings living in the dry belt of Inland Asia could adapt to the environment at that time. The area has produced crops for centuries and towns and cities appeared in 3000 BC against the background of their surplus products. These gradually became hubs of trade and handicrafts, where a unique oasis culture developed. In 4000 BC, people noticed that living animals were better suited than in agriculture, and changed to nomads who lived in livestock as living.[2]
Hsiung-Nu (the Huns) Empire edit
Showing the precedent of the shift from decentralized tribal micro-politics to empire to the large scale macro-politics by the first time established by the Huns.[2] As a result, the models of relying of Turkic and Mongolia has been fixed.As a result of losing to China and beginning to move to the west, Turkicization of Western Eurasia began.[2]
Gokturks Empire edit
This empire realized "Pax-Turkika" for a relatively long term from the standard of inland Asia. In general it played the role of propagating not only goods but also thought through a long trade route from China to Constantinople, which is said to be Silk Road.Various successor states and Turkic tribes that appeared after the collapse of the empire began moving to the west after 840 AD. This west area ethnically changed from the core zone of Turkic to the core zone of Mongolia.[2]
Mongol Empire states edit
Mongolia of the 13th century was originally located in the frontier of the Islamic region, and for the first time reintegrated residents of Steppe into one state since the Gokturks Empire. Mongolia created the "greatest land Empire in history" and permanently joined Eurasia as a system. The Mongol empire incorporating Steppe culture left a society in which the ethnic group is Turkic, religion as a Muslims occupy the majority afterwards.[2]
Turkic and Mongolian People edit
Until today, from since when the Mongol Empire was founded in 1206, there exists a group of Mongolian people who speak Turkic languages. For example, from the modern Mongolian ethnic group, the Uriankhai lives in the Xinjiang and the western part of Mongolia, and speaks the Tuvan language (one of the Turkic languages) as their native language.
From a historical point of view, nations of Turkic nomadic people such as Göktürks and Uighur, and ethnic groups that spoke Turkic languages such as Naimans and Ongud during the times of Genghis Khan, had lived in the Mongolian Plateau, so it is thought that during the period of the Mongol Empire, there were people also in the Mongol army that spoke Turkic language.
The western half of the Mongol Empire’s domain were separated to the Ilkhanate in west Asia, Chagatai Khanate in southern central Asia, and the Golden Horde in the Northwestern sector. Since the Mongolians that have emigrated towards these west areas were the minorities, and had included some people who spoke Turkic languages, they had assimilated into the native Turkic groups, soon adopting Turkic languages and Islam to their culture.
In Iran, which their land used to be a part of Ilkhanate, the native Iran people produced the civil officials, the Turkic nomads became soldiers, and the Mongolians are thought to be assimilated with the Turkic soldiers. People in the Northwest Iran region (such as the regions of Azerbaijan) had become Turkic, as well as the languages spoken in the Khwarezm region in central Asia during the times of the Mongol Empire.
Most of the native Turkic nomads in the Golden Horde weren’t Muslims, but had turned Islamic, and Kipchak language (one of the Turkic languages) became common after the founding of its state. In the regions of Western central Asia, below the Mongol Empire and its inheritance regime, many different ethnic people including the Mongolians had assimilated to the Turks.[3]
Religion edit
Tengrism edit
Tengrism is an ancient religion, especially with people in Central Asia including Huns and Mongolians. Tengrism is based on faith in Tengri Goddess and the Earth goddess Erlik. However, there are no clerics and others, so there is nothing to propagate to others, so it is known for not having distinct doctrines. The Tengrism faithful emphasizes harmonizing with the surrounding environment and considers the ground resources to be sacred. In particular, water was more valiantly sometimes valuable in the Central Asian prairies where there were many faithfuls. The Tengrism faithful is still considered to be part of Asia, but unknown of the exact number.[4]
The early Mongol rulers, though followers of Tengri, were tolerant of other religions. One of the unique features of Tengriism is its non-dogmatism. It did not force its dogma on other religious though other religions succeeded in doing the same. The Mongol rulers believed that they were the sons of Tengri and they could rule as long as they were upright and followed the laws of Tengri. If they became wayward, Tengri would withdraw his grace and support, and the ruler would fall.[4]
Tengriism believes there is only one supreme God. His name is Tengri and he is unknowable. He is aware of everything and knows everything. So a lot of Mongols and Turks are often heard saying 'only Tengri knows.'[4]
Language edit
According to Gulensoy (1988), it is stated that also before the Genghis Khan, Turks and Mongols had mutual word exchange, and in that relation, Turkish is more active then Mongolian. A much earlier Turco-Mongol tradition existed in, as evidenced by the extensive lexical borrowings from Proto-Turkic into the ancestor of Proto-Mongolic language from around at least the first millennium BCE. Turkic and Mongolic languages share extensive borrowed similarities in their personal pronouns, among other lexical similarities of the type, which seem to date to before this era and already existed before the breakup of Turkic around 500 BCE. [5]
A still more ancient period of prolonged language contact between Turkic and Mongolic is indicated by further and more fundamental phonotactic, grammatical, and typological similarities (e.g. synchronic vowel harmony, lack of grammatical gender, extensive agglutination, highly similar phonotactic rules and phonology).[5] In the past, such similarities were attributed to a genetic relationship and led to the widespread acceptance of an Altaic language family. More recently, due to the lack of a definitive demonstration of genetic relationship, these similarities have been divided into at these three known periods of language contact. The similarities have led to the proposal of a Northeast Asian sprachbund instead, which also includes the Tungusic, Korean, and Japonic language families, although Turkic and Mongolic display the most extensive similarities.
According to recent aggregation and research, there are doublets, which are considered to be the same in terms of their roots, found in the vocabulary in Mongolian language and Turkic loanwords. Also, inside the Mongolian vocabulary that are derived from other languages, Turkic is the most common.[6]
Culture edit
Turco-Mongols lived a pastoral nomadic lifestyle, and migrated according to season. This was to ensure that grass was always available for the animals while avoiding overgrazing. They grazed livestocks such as sheep, goats, cattle, camels horses which were the source of food, clothing, shelter, transportation, and fuel. [7] Khan of Khitai used the skins of dogs and mice for clothing and food sources. However, in the 12th century, Turco-Mongol tribes consisted of two main groups: the pastoralists and forest hunters/fishers. Forest hunters lived around Lake Baikal, the source of River Yenisey, and the upper reaches of River Irtysh. Both groups tended and raised livestock and grew crops and cultivated land. [8]
Turco-Mongol society was extremely patriarchal. Clans were divided into sub clans that were exogamous meaning a potential spouse had to be from a different clan. [8] Marriage was often arranged, however, some were forced marriages. For example, when brides were not offered willingly, tribes abducted brides. This was a cause of disputes between different clans, and it was the basis of cross-generational feuds including the Borjigid and Temüjin clans. [8] However, in cases where marriages were agreed, it was usually between clan elders and were often a political or commercial agreement. In Turco-Mongol society, polygyny was practiced by those who could afford it. Under the polygynic society, the first wife always maintained her status as chief wife. However, these traditions were later broken by Dokuz Khatun. [8]
"In the Turco-Mongolian history, when a man marries a woman from a superior family, they had to give bride price as a service or payment, because, the groom had to prove himself to be the son-in-law of the superior family.” [9]Turco-Mongolian society's tended to rely on matrilineally rather than patrilineality. However, the Ottoman Empire later abolished this system.
Polygamy was a common practice amongst those who could afford it in these societies. For Turco-Mongols the tribe was the basis of their strength and identity, and they were always loyal to the Khan [8]
Influences edit
Turco-Mongols had a great influence on many empires and dynasties. During the Sui Dynasty (581-618) and Tang Dynasty (618-907) many Turco-Mongols were part of the political elite family in these two areas. In Turco-Mongol society, kinship was another major method used to maintain power. [10] Turko-Mongols were often patrimonial rulers meaning all powers flowed directly from the ruler. However, many Turco-Mongol leaders viewed their kingdom as a family. They often had three types of clients which were personal retainers, guard corps members, and chief of tribes and tribal unions.[11]
Personal retailers living within the rulers boundaries were provided with food, drink, and clothing by the rulers themselves. The second group, were important for maintaining control and militaristic power. They took up roles as bodyguards and also were part of military of individual tribes or larger khanates. The latter group played an important role in the Turco-Mongol society as allegiances with these groups were necessary in order to build and maintain power. For Turco-Mongol leaders it was crucial for them to place loyal clients into positions with high authority in order to strengthen their rule on the steppe. One political strategy used to gain and maintain power was through diplomatic marriage. The Turco-Mongols would send family members to marry emperors from the Sui and Tang Dynasty. This was to provide economic and political alliances.[12]
The model of imperial confederacy was implemented by the Turco-Mongols. They implemented policies of extortion which was successful when they implemented the policies in Inner Asia. “Imperial confederacy was the most easily transformed into a state structure.” [13] It consisted of imperial control over tribes and provinces. “its hierarchical structure made the ideological transformation of tribal khan to shah or sultan easier”. [13] However, less successfully implemented policies included the Turco-Mongol tradition of increasing revenue by raiding or extortion. However, although these worked in Inner Asia, these policies was a threat for regional economic life. [13] Many dynasties established between 1000 and 1500 were founded by Turco-Mongol elites who had come from Inner Asia.
See also edit
- Golden Horde
- Chagatai Khanate
- Huns
- Gokturks
- Steppe
- Turko-Persian tradition
- Mongol invasions and conquests
- List of Turkic dynasties and countries
- List of Mongol states
- Turanism
- Tartary
- Division of the Mongol Empire
- Inner Asia
- Altaic languages
- Japhetic theory
- Khazar theory
- Turkic migration
References edit
- ^ Beatrice Forbes Manz (1989). The Rise and Rule of Tamerlane. Cambridge University Press. pp. 6–9. ISBN 978-0-521-34595-8.
- ^ a b c d e f Vaughn Findley, Sasaki, Komatsu, Carter, Shin, Hisao (2017). テュルクの歴史 古代から近現代まで. 明石書店.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Komatsu Hisao (author and editor),『テュルクを知るための61章』,明石書店, 2016.
- ^ a b c Cite news|url=https://www.discovermongolia.mn/blog-news-the-ancient-religion-of-tengriism/%7Ctitle=The Ancient Religion of Tengriism|work=Discover Mongolia Travel Guide - Travel to Mongolia|access-date=2018-06-10
- ^ a b Janhunen, Juha (2013). "Personal pronouns in Core Altaic". In Martine Irma Robbeets; Hubert Cuyckens (eds.). Shared Grammaticalization: With Special Focus on the Transeurasian Languages. p. 221. ISBN 9789027205995.
- ^ Nakashima, Y. (n.d.). 語彙借用に見るモンゴル語とチュルク語の言語接触: 特にカザフ語及びトゥヴァ語との比較を中心として(Rep.). Retrieved from https://ir.library.osaka-u.ac.jp/repo/ouka/all/51188/gk00068_論文.pdf
- ^ Skaff, J. K. (2012). Sui-Tang China and Its Turko-Mongol Neighbors: Culture, Power, and Connections, 580-800 (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. ,p.33
- ^ a b c d e Lane, G. (2018). A Short History of the Mongols. London: I.B. Tauris.
- ^ Cite web|url=https://etd.lib.metu.edu.tr/upload/12608663/index.pdf%7Ctitle=Gender roles and women's status in central Asia and Anatolia between the thirteenth and sixteenth centuries|last=Dalkesen|first=Nilgün|date=August 20, 2007|website=|publisher=The Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences of Middle East Technical University|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=July 16, 2018
- ^ Skaff, J. K. (2012). Sui-Tang China and Its Turko-Mongol Neighbors: Culture, Power, and Connections, 580-800 (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. ,p.15
- ^ Skaff, J. K. (2012). Sui-Tang China and Its Turko-Mongol Neighbors: Culture, Power, and Connections, 580-800 (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. ,p.77
- ^ Skaff, J. K. (2012). Sui-Tang China and Its Turko-Mongol Neighbors: Culture, Power, and Connections, 580-800 (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. ,p.238
- ^ a b c Khoury, P. S., & Kostiner, J. (1991). Tribes and State formation in the Middle East. London: I. B. Tauris., p.171 Cite error: The named reference "khoury" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).