Karlodinium veneficum is a species of dinoflagellates belonging to the family Kareniaceae.[1] This species is predominantly inhabiting aquatic environments, particularly in temperate coastal regions.

Karlodinium veneficum
Scanning electron microscope image of Karlodinium veneficum (right) feeding on Rhodomonas
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Clade: Diaphoretickes
Clade: SAR
Clade: Alveolata
Phylum: Myzozoa
Superclass: Dinoflagellata
Class: Dinophyceae
Order: Gymnodiniales
Family: Kareniaceae
Genus: Karlodinium
Species:
K. veneficum
Binomial name
Karlodinium veneficum
(D.Ballantine) J.Larsen 2000

Karlodinium veneficum genome sizes have been reported as ~20 pg/cell[2] and 4 pg/cell.[3]

This phytoplankton has the capacity to produce harmfull toxins, specifically karlotoxins, which have been associated with detrimental phenomena such as harmful algae blooms.[4] These blooms have been documented globally, spanning regions from South Africa[5] and Europe[6] to Australia, North America, and China. The repercussions of K. veneficum blooms include not only ecological concerns, also substantial economic and environmental impacts.

The species-specific toxins produced by K. veneficum, known as karlotoxins, belong to the amphidinol-like compound class, exhibiting hemolytic, ichthyotoxic, and cytotoxic properties. The toxins generated by this dinoflagellate have been implicated in massive fish kills during bloom events.[7]

K. veneficum is not confined to solitary blooms but frequently coexists with other phytoplankton species, such as Prorocentrum donghaiense and Karenia mikimotoi.[8] K. veneficum often proliferates into dense blooms following the decline of P. donghaiense.[9]

References

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  1. ^ "Karlodinium veneficum (D.Ballantine) J.Larsen 2000 :: Algaebase". www.algaebase.org. Retrieved 29 October 2022.
  2. ^ Figueroa, Rosa Isabel; Garcés, E.; Bravo, I. (2010). "The use of flow cytometry for species identification and life-cycle studies in dinoflagellates". Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography. 57 (3–4). Elsevier BV: 301–307. Bibcode:2010DSRII..57..301F. doi:10.1016/j.dsr2.2009.09.008. ISSN 0967-0645.
  3. ^ Liu, Yuyang; Hu, Zhangxi; Deng, Yunyan; Shang, Lixia; Gobler, Christopher J.; Tang, Ying Zhong (2021). "Dependence of genome size and copy number of rRNA gene on cell volume in dinoflagellates". Harmful Algae. 109. Elsevier BV: 102108. doi:10.1016/j.hal.2021.102108. ISSN 1568-9883. PMID 34815026. S2CID 244318552.
  4. ^ Deeds, Jonathan R; Terlizzi, Daniel E; Adolf, Jason E; Stoecker, Diane K; Place, Allen R (1 June 2002). "Toxic activity from cultures of Karlodinium micrum (=Gyrodinium galatheanum) (Dinophyceae)—a dinoflagellate associated with fish mortalities in an estuarine aquaculture facility". Harmful Algae. 1 (2): 169–189. doi:10.1016/S1568-9883(02)00027-6. ISSN 1568-9883.
  5. ^ "Gymnodinium galatheanum Braarud :: AlgaeBase". www.algaebase.org. Retrieved 2 December 2023.
  6. ^ Carreto, J. I. (1 October 2001). "Pigment profile of the ichthyotoxic dinoflagellate Gymnodinium sp. from a massive bloom in southern Chile". Journal of Plankton Research. 23 (10): 1171–1175. doi:10.1093/plankt/23.10.1171. ISSN 1464-3774.
  7. ^ Van Wagoner, Ryan M.; Deeds, Jonathan R.; Satake, Masayuki; Ribeiro, Anthony A.; Place, Allen R.; Wright, Jeffrey L.C. (November 2008). "Isolation and characterization of karlotoxin 1, a new amphipathic toxin from Karlodinium veneficum". Tetrahedron Letters. 49 (45): 6457–6461. doi:10.1016/j.tetlet.2008.08.103. PMC 2928153. PMID 20798789.
  8. ^ Zhou, Chengxu; Place, Allen R.; Yan, Xiaojun; Xu, Jilin; Luo, Qijun; William, Ernest; Jiang, Ying (November 2015). "Interactions between Karlodinium veneficum and Prorocentrum donghaiense from the East China Sea". Harmful Algae. 49: 50–57. doi:10.1016/j.hal.2015.08.004. PMC 6512812. PMID 31093028.
  9. ^ Wang, Rui; Wu, Jiajun; Zhou, Shiwen; Cao, Ruobing; Chan, Leo Lai (1 September 2020). "A preliminary study on the allelopathy and toxicity of the dinoflagellate Karlodinium veneficum". Marine Pollution Bulletin. 158: 111400. Bibcode:2020MarPB.15811400W. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111400. ISSN 0025-326X. S2CID 220979297.