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Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui, also called Pachacútec (Quechua: Pachakutiy Inka Yupanki), was the ninth Sapa Inca of the Chiefdom of Cusco, which he transformed into the Inca Empire (Quechua: Tawantinsuyu). Most archaeologists now believe that the famous Inca site of Machu Picchu was built as an estate for Pachacuti.[2]
| Pachacuti | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
.jpg) Pachacuti, mid–18th century painting, anonymous. | |||||
| Sapa Inca of the Inca Empire | |||||
| Reign | 1438–1471 (Rowe) | ||||
| Predecessor | Viracocha | ||||
| Successor | Túpac Inca Yupanqui | ||||
| Born | Cusi Inca Yupanqui, 1418[1] (Bilingual Review) Cusicancha Palace, Cusco, Inca Empire, modern-day Peru | ||||
| Died | 1471 (Rowe) Patallacta Palace, Cusco, Inca Empire, modern-day Peru | ||||
| Consort | Mama Anawarkhi or Quya Anawarkhi | ||||
| Issue | Tupac Yupanqui, Amaru Topa Inca, Mama Ocllo Coya | ||||
| |||||
| Quechua | Pachakutiy Inka Yupanki | ||||
| Spanish | Pachacútec/Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui | ||||
| Lineage (panaka) | Iñaca Panaka, later Hatun Ayllu | ||||
| Dynasty | Hanan Qusqu, moiety | ||||
| Father | Viracocha Inca | ||||
| Mother | Mama Runtu | ||||
In Quechua, the cosmogonical concept of Pachakutiy means 'the turn of the world'[3] and Yupanki could mean 'honorable lord'.[4] During his reign, Cusco grew from a hamlet into an empire that could compete with, and eventually overtake, the Chimú empire on the northern coast. He began an era of conquest that, within three generations, expanded the Inca dominion from the valley of Cusco to a sizeable part of western South America. According to the inca chronicler Garcilaso de la Vega, Pachacuti created the Inti Raymi to celebrate the new year in the Andes of the Southern Hemisphere.[5] Pachacuti is often linked to the origin and expansion of the Inti Sun Cult.[6][7]
Pachacuti is considered by some anthropologists to be the first historical emperor of the Incas,[8] and by others to be a mythological and cosmological representation of the beginning of the era of inca imperial expansion.[9]
Name edit
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Historicity edit
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Early life and parentage edit
Pachacuti's given name was Cusi Yupanqui, and he originated from the female lineage of Iñaca Panaka. According to the accounts of the Spanish chroniclers, he was the son of the eighth ruler of Cusco, Inca Viracocha, who's lineage (panaka), however, was Sucsu Panaka. Analyzing the colonial writings, the historian and anthropologist María Rostworowski concluded that, based on Andean traditions of succession, which allowed for the "most capable" to take power, Pachacuti was not the son of Inca Viracocha, rendering him illegitimate in the eyes of the Spaniards, who believed in European concepts of primogeniture.
Cusi Yupanqui was born in Cusco, at the palace of Cusicancha, bordering the Inticancha temple. His tutor, Micuymana, taught him history, laws and language, as well as the handling of quipus. From a young age, he was admired by Inca nobles because he had the courage, intelligence and maturity his brother, Inca Urco, the appointed co-ruler and heir to the throne, lacked. Similarly, he showed aptitudes for government and conquest that his brother likewise lacked. The generals of Viracocha started fomenting conspiracies to overthrow and replace Inca Urco.[10][11]
Rise to power edit
In the early 15th century, the Cusco confederation, stretching 40 kilometers around the city of Cusco, faced an invasion by the Chankas, the Incas' traditional tribal archenemies. Multiple versions of the encounter exist, the most accepted one being supported by the majority of reliable Spanish sources.[12][13]
The ruler, Inca Viracocha, and his co-ruler Urco, fled the scene, while Cusi Yupanqui rallied the army, accompanied by four of Viracocha's generals, and prepared the defense of the city. During the subsequent assault on Cusco, the Chankas were repelled, so severely that legend tells even the stones rose up to fight on Yupanqui's side. At the battle of Yahuar Pampa, the Inka army won a decisive victory over the Chankas and asserted it's dominance. Cusi Yupanqui captured many Chanka leaders, who he presented to his father Viracocha for him to wipe his feet on their bodies, a traditional victory ritual. Viracocha told Yupanqui that the honor of the ritual belonged to the designated heir, Urco. Yupanqui protested and said that he had not won the victory for his brothers to step on the Chanka captives. A heated argument ensued, and Viracocha tried to have the general assassinated. Pachacuti was tipped off to the plot, however, and the assassination failed. Viracocha went into exile while Inca Yupanqui returned in triumph to Cusco, and, following a short civil war during which the co-ruler, Urco, died, was crowned Sapa Inca of Cusco, and renamed himself "Pachacuti" (meaning "Earth Shaker").[14][15]
Reign edit
As ruler, Pachacuti married Mama Anawarkhi, of the ayllus of Choqo and Cachona, most likely to reward a chief belonging to one of these ayllus who had defended Cusco during the Chanka invasion, and left his original family-clan (panaka) to form the imperial lineage of Hatun Ayllu, failing in his attempt to fuse the two factions. To record the history of the previous Inca rulers of Cusco, Pachacuti ordered the creation of painted wooden panels, which, in relation to oral texts, often in the form of mnemonic songs sung at important celebrations, and quipus, which contained simple and stereotyped information according to colour, order and number, decipherable by Quipucamayocs, represented official and state-sanctioned pre-imperial history.[16]
Despite Pachacuti's prestige following the victory over the Chankas, he had "little effective power and a meager work force to undertake the development of Cusco". Instituting the system of reciprocity (a socio-economic principle regulating relations, based on obligatory and institutional mutual, "give and take", assistance) to assert his authority, Pachacuti summoned the surrounding kurakas (chiefs) to Cusco, and prepared "lavish feasts and ceremonies", tactically displaying much generosity and sharing gifts, including the booty of the war against the Chankas, before articulating gradually growing demands such as the construction of warehouses, the stocking of produce, the creation of an army, and the improvement of infrastructure.[17] Using the means of reciprocity, Pachacuti rebuilt much of Cusco, designing it to serve the needs of an imperial city and as a representation of the empire[17]. Each suyu had a sector of the city, centering on the road leading to that province; nobles and immigrants lived in the sector corresponding to their origin. Each sector was further divided into areas for the hanan (upper) and hurin (lower) moieties. Many of the most renowned monuments around Cusco, such as the great sun temple Qurikancha (previously Intikancha), were rebuilt during Pachacuti's reign.[18]
At the beginning of Pachacuti's reign, the cult of the Andean creator deity Viracocha, whose priests had supported the previous ruler Viracocha Inca, was possibly replaced by the Inti Sun cult.[6][7] The first months of his reign were spent putting down revolts by surrounding chiefs in the Cusco valley and consolidating the territorial base of the polity, confronting the Ayarmacas, the Ollantaytambo, the Huacara, and the Toguaro.[19]
Expansion of the realm edit
Local kurakas (lords) were integrated using the principle of reciprocity and the "attachment system", where the Inca emperor held personal relations with allied local socio-political structures, and "gifts", in the form of feasts, women, or materials, were exchanged in return for submission, reduced sovereignty, alliance and the construction of hatuncancha (administrative centers).[20] Pachacuti occasionally made individuals from the class of yanakunas, who left the system of kinship groups (ayllus and panakas) and weren't obligated or entitled to the obligations and rights of reciprocal exchange, rulers of local chiefdoms who had rebelled or refused Inca domination.[17]
His first military campaign, led by the emperor and his general Apo Mayta, was set against the Chankas' allies and confederates, and the chiefdoms surrounding Cusco. Pachacuti conquered the Soras and Rucanas, the Vilcas, the Lucanas, the Chalcas, and the Cotabambas.[21][22] The conquest of the chiefdom of Chincha, and the neighboring valley of Pisco, on the south-central coast, also happened during the reign of Pachacuti. The general, and possibly "co-king" or huauque (lit. "brother" in quechua), Capac Yupanqui led an army to Chincha, gaining the recognition and submission of the local kings with the help of "reciprocal gifts", in exchange for which the Chincha allowed the construction of administrative centers, the usage of land cultivated by Palla (women working for the state) and yanakuna servants, and recognized Pachacuti's superiority.[23][24] However, in 1945, the historian John Howland Rowe attributed the conquest to later rulers, claiming that the initial campaign was a raid.[12][23]
As part of his vision of a statesman and warrior chieftain he conquered many ethnic groups and states, highlighting his conquest of the Collao that enhanced the prestige of the Inca Pachacuti. Due to the remarkable expansion of their domains he was considered an exceptional leader, enlivening glorious epic stories and hymns in tribute to his achievements. Numerous kurakas do not hesitate to recognise his skills and identify him as the "Son of the Sun".[citation needed]
Conquest of Qullasuyu edit
The Colla chiefdom and the Lupaca chiefdom of lake Titicaca, in the Altiplano (called "Collao"), were one of the first of Pachacuti's targets.[25] Following the construction of the Qurikancha, the "temple of gold" dedicated to the sun, Pachacuti sent an army near the border with the Colla chiefdom, before joining his forces not long after. The Colla king or Colla Capac, informed of this, gathered his forces and awaited the Inca at the town of Ayaviri. During the ensuing battle, the Incas forced the Colla army to retreat, capturing the king, Colla Capac. Following the victory, Pachacuti occupied the principal city, Hatunqulla, and from there he received the submission of the Lupacas, the Pacasas and the Azangaros (previously a tributary chiefdom of the Collas).[26] John Howland Rowe estimated the Inca Empire under Pachacuti to have reached the Desaguadero River near lake Titicaca, which marked the border between the conquered Lupaca chiefdom and the Pacasa chiefdom. However, in 1992, the Finnish ethno-historian Martti Pärssinen, pointing to local sources of the area of the Aymara kingdoms, supported the narrative of territorial expansion by Pachacuti's generals until the nation of Charcas, near lake Poopó.[27][2]
Pachacuti also potentially conquered parts of Kuntisuyu, where many Aymara enclaves were attached to the highland kingdoms, including the regions of Arequipa, Camana and Tarapacá.[26] The conquest of these regions is also attributed to Amaru Topa Inca, during the subsequent revolt of the chiefdoms around lake Titicaca.[28]
Revolt edit
Later, when a revolt broke out, he sent his sons, Tupac Ayar Manco, Amaru Tupac Inca, and Apu Paucar Usnu, to put it down. Additionally, they left garrisons in the subjugated lands.[29]
Expeditions to Chinchaysuyu edit
He executed his brother, Capac Yupanqui, after a campaign in the north. The reasons for this execution are still being debated.[30]
Despite his political and military talents, Pachacuti did not improve the system of succession.[31] His son became the next Inca without any known dispute after Pachacuti died in 1471 due to a terminal illness.[30] But in future generations, the next Inca had to gain control of the empire by winning enough support from the apos, priesthood, and military to win a civil war or intimidate anyone else from trying to wrest control of the empire.[24]
Pachacuti is also credited with having displaced hundreds of thousands in massive programs of relocation and resettling them to colonize the most remote edges of his empire. These forced colonists were called mitimaes and represented the lowest place in the Incan social hierarchy. The Incan imperial government was highly authoritative and repressive.[32]
The Inca designated his favorite son, Amaru Yupanqui, as co-sovereign and successor.[33] However due to the lack of military talent found in the joint prince, Pachacuti changed his decision and instead decided to name another of his sons, Tupac Inca Yupanqui, who in turn had a reputation as a talented general, as his co-ruler and successor.[30]
He sent Tupac Yupanqui an army to repeat his conquests, and extend his realm to Quito. Pachacuti then built irrigating channels, cultivated terraces, made roads and hospices. The Road of the Inca stretched from Quito to Chile.[34]
Pachacuti was a poet and the author of the Sacred Hymns of the Situa city purification ceremony. Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa attributed one song to Pachacuti on his deathbed:[35] "I was born as a lily in the garden, and like the lily I grew, as my age advanced / I became old and had to die, and so I withered and died."[36]
Reforms edit
In his last years, the Inca government was de facto in the hands of his double in the semi-diarchy of the Inca, by the name of Yamqui Yupanqui. At the death of Pachacuti, instead of confirming the power he already had, Yamqui Yupanqui rather confirmed Tupac Inca Yupanqui as successor to his father.[30]
Death and succession edit
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Lineage edit
Pachacuti, considered the son of Inca Viracocha and Mama Runtu, was the fourth of the Hanan dynasty. He had several sons, among which are Tupac Ayar Manco, Apu Paucar, Amaru Tupac or Amaru Yupanqui, Yamqui Yupanqui, Auqui Yupanqui, Tilca Yupanqui, and Tupac Inca Yupanqui.[37]
Pachacuti had two of his brothers, Capac Yupanqui and Huayna Yupanqui, killed after the military campaign against the region of Chinchay-Suyu. He also killed his sons Tilca Yupanqui and Auqui Yupanqui.[38]
Amaru, the older son, was originally chosen to be co-regent and eventual successor. Pachacuti later chose Tupac Inca because Amaru was not a warrior. He was also the first Inca to abdicate.[39]
His lignage or panaqa of birth was Iñaka Panka, whose common ancestor was Mama Wako, the wife of Manco Capac, which he left to found his own lineage called Hatun Ayllu. He married Mama Anawarkhi or Anarwakhi (Coya Anahuarque), of the ayllus of Choqo and Cachona, most likely to reward a chief belonging to one of these ayllus who had defended Cusco during the Chanka invasion.[30]
In popular culture edit
- Pachacuti is featured as the leader of the Inca in the video games Civilization III, Civilization V, and Civilization VI.[citation needed]
- Pachacuti, a resurrected Sapa Inca king who is over 500 years old, plays a major role in James Rollins' novel Excavation, whose major action occurs in the Peruvian Andes. The book is steeped in history and culture about the Inca, Moche, and Quechan peoples, their interactions with the Dominican Order and Spanish Conquistadors, and the Spanish Inquisition.[citation needed]
- He was portrayed in the American documentary series Mankind: The Story of All of Us.[citation needed]
- The BBC children's series Horrible Histories featured Pachacuti, played by Mathew Baynton, in the song "Do the Pachacuti" (a parody of novelty party songs) during its second series.[citation needed]
- Pachakutiq is the name of a character played by Clark Gregg in season six of the Marvel TV series Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. — not the Incan emperor, but a character who might be said to be a "he who overturns space and time" in a certain sense.[citation needed]
- The video game Age of Empires II: Definitive Edition contains a five-chapter campaign titled "Pachacuti".[citation needed]
See also edit
References edit
- ^ "The Life of Pachacuti Inca Yupangui". Bilingual Review, Bilingual Review Press, 1 May 2001
- ^ a b Rowe, John, 1990. "Machu Picchu a la luz de documentos de siglo XVI". Historia 16 (1): 139–154, Lima.
- ^ Cerrón-Palomino, Rodolfo (2008). Voces del Ande : ensayos sobre onomástica andina. Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú. ISBN 978-9972-42-856-2.
- ^ Cerrón-Palomino, Rodolfo (2013), Las lenguas de los incas: el puquina, el aimara y el quechua, Peter Lang, retrieved 1 April 2024
- ^ "Inti Raymi, The Celebration of the Sun". Discover Peru, www.discover-peru.org/inti-raymi/.
- ^ a b Steele & Allen 2004, p. 246.
- ^ a b D'Altroy 2003, p. 147.
- ^ Shimadi, Izumi, ed. (2015). The Inka Empire: A multidisciplinary approach. University of Texas Press.
- ^ Garcia, Franck (2019). Les incas (in French). Paris: Éditions Ellipses. pp. 145–152.
- ^ Espinoza 1997, p. 77.
- ^ Rostworowski 2001, pp. 92–95.
- ^ a b H. Rowe, John (January 1945). "Absolute Chronology in the Andean Area". American antiquity. 10 (3): 265–284.
- ^ Izumi, Shimadi, ed. (2015). The Inka Empire: A multidisciplinary approach. University of Texas Press. p. 272.
- ^ De Gamboa 2011, p. [page needed].
- ^ Mann 2006, pp. 76.
- ^ Pärssinen, Martti (1992). Tawantinsuyu: The Inca State and Its Political Organization. SHS. pp. 26–51.
- ^ a b c The Inca World: The Development of Pre-Columbian Peru, A.D 1000–1534 (2000). Laura, Laurencich Minelli (ed.). The Inca World: The Development of Pre-Columbian Peru, A.D 1000–1534. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 177–178. ISBN 9780806132211.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ De Gamboa 2011, p. 66–69, 75.
- ^ Rostworowski 2001, p. 133–135.
- ^ Pärssinen, Martti (1992). Tawantinsuyu: The Inca State and Its Political Organization. SHS.
- ^ Pärssinen, Martti (1992). Tawantinsuyu: The Inca State and Its Political Orgnization. SHS. p. 85.
- ^ Rostworowski 2001, p. 137–139.
- ^ a b Pärssinen, Martti (1992). Tawantinsuyu: The Inca State and Its Political Orgnization. SHS. pp. 87–89.
- ^ a b Rostworowski de Diez Canseco, María (1999). History of the Inca Realm. Translated by B. Iceland, Harry. Cambridge University Press.
- ^ D'Altroy 2001.
- ^ a b Rostworowski 2001, p. 155–159.
- ^ Pärssinen, Martti (1992). Tawantinsuyu: The Inca State and Its Political Organization. SHS. pp. 120–135.
- ^ Pärssinen, Martti (1992). Tawantinsuyu: The Inca State and Its Political Organization. SHS. pp. 136–140.
- ^ De Gamboa 2011, pp. 74, 78, 83–85.
- ^ a b c d e Rostworowski, María (2008). Le Grand Inca Pachacútec Inca Yupanqui. Tallandier. ISBN 978-2-84734-462-2.
- ^ Favre, Henri. Les Incas. Presses Universitaires de France.
- ^ De Gamboa 2011, p. 70, 72–74, 76–85.
- ^ Favre, Henri. Les Incas. Presses universitaires de France. p. 22.
- ^ De Gamboa 2011, p. 89, 91–92.
- ^ De Gamboa 2011, p. 95.
- ^ Burger 2004, p. 32.
- ^ De Gamboa 2011, p. 84.
- ^ De Gamboa 2011, pp. 80, 94.
- ^ Rostworowski, María. "Inca Succession" Archived 10 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine – The Incas Peruvian Cultural Center.
Works cited edit
- Burger, Richard; Lucy C. Salazar (2004). Machu Picchu: Unveiling the Mystery of the Incas. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-09763-4.
- Cameron, Ian (1990). Kingdom of the Sun God: a history of the Andes and their people. New York: Facts on File. p. 58. ISBN 0-8160-2581-9.
- D'Altroy, Terence N. (2003). The Incas. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell. ISBN 9781405116763.
- De Gamboa, Pedro Sarmiento (December 2011). History Of The Incas. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. ISBN 9781463688653.
- Espinoza, Waldemar (1997). Los Incas (in Spanish) (3 ed.). Lima: Amaru Editores.
- Mann, Charles C. (2006), 1491 : new revelations of the Americas before Columbus, Vintage, pp. 76, ISBN 9781400032051
- Rostworowski, María (2001). Pachacútec Inca Yupanqui (in Spanish). Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos. ISBN 9972-51-060-3.
- Steele, Paul Richard; Allen, Catherine J. (2004). Handbook of Inca Mythology. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-354-4.
External links edit
Media related to Pachacútec at Wikimedia Commons