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Background

The language was developed by Ernst von Glasersfeld and used by Duane Rumbaugh and Sue Savage-Rumbaugh of Georgia State University while working with primates at the Yerkes National Primate Research Center of Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia. Primates were taught to communicate by means of a lexigram board, a computerized array of keys labeled with lexigrams. Von Glasersfeld coined the term "lexigram" in 1971, created the first 120 of them, and designed the grammar that regulated their combination. This artificial language was called Yerkish in honor of Robert M. Yerkes, the founder of the laboratory within which the lexigrams were first used.

The first ape trained to communicate in Yerkish was the chimpanzee Lana, beginning in 1973 within the context of the LANA project. Von Glaserfeld created approximately 150 of the first words in the Yerkish language, and went on to use 25 of them in his initial experiment with Lana - a chimpanzee whom researchers were hoping would not only interpret the Yerkish language, but would also participate in communication with others through this newfound language. A keyboard was created for Lana with each key representing various nouns or verbs such as food, eat, apple, drink, etc. After pressing a certain key, the corresponding item would emerge from a food dispenser placed next to the keyboard, and through a series of experiments, researchers hoped that Lana would learn to interpret what each key would correlate to and learn to meaningfully communicate her requests.

Kanzi research

This lexigram serves as an example of the many different symbols that Kanzi was able to comprehend and use.

One of the most widely researched and studied primates to ever communicate through Yerkish is a chimpanzee named Kanzi. Kanzi was introduced to a laboratory setting when he was only 6 months old. His mother, named Matata, was a chimpanzee caught in the wild. The original goal of the researchers at the Yerkes Primate Research Center was to teach Matata how to understand and communicate via Yerkish. After several failed attempts, Matata was removed from the laboratory and separated from Kanzi. In the time following his separation from his mother, Kanzi began trying to communicate his distress to the researchers he had seen working with his mother. He was able to effectively use each of the eight symbols that his mother was being taught.^[1]

Upon realizing his ability to learn and understand the lexigrams, researchers decided to expand on his knowledge and continued to introduce new lexigrams to Kanzi. Just as he indirectly learned the symbols the researchers had introduced to his mother, Kanzi was able to grasp the meanings of and use a large amount of lexigrams by learning in an unstructured environment.

The Yerkish language has enabled Kanzi to use lexigrams to communicate with his trainers about objects that are not in the room. For example, just before bed Kanzi may request that a trainer bring him a blanket or ball. To communicate "invisible" words such as nouns, Kanzi is able to use Yerkish and lexigrams to ask a trainer to play with him or scratch his head. Through the use of Yerkish, Kanzi is able to communicate efficiently with those around him through the learning of the various symbols and meanings of lexigrams.^[1]

Yerkish served as a gateway for Kanzi to learn a multitude of other communicational strategies. For example, Kanzi was known to make audible, verbal utterances with his trainers as well as reach and twist towards objects that he desired. Kanzi's utterances were videotaped and recorded and researchers found that although his rate of utterances of seven utterances per hour was slightly low, the communications he made were meaningful, and therefore, exceptional.

Koko

One aspect of verbalization and intelligence that is widely studied and researched amongst both humans and primates is breath control. Breath control is known as the active, conscious regulating of one's flow of breath in and out. In studies of Koko when she was reported to be between the ages of 37 to 39 years old, researchers videotaped and observed Koko as she responded to a variety of stimulants. When approached by someone Koko did not like, she tended to let out a dramatic breath of exasperation to seemingly let the intruder know that his or her presence was not welcome. In contrast, if someone Koko was excited to see entered the room, Koko gave a light breath of excitement. In other tests, Koko was seen to let out breaths for fake coughs, letting out light steam to fog up the lenses of glasses, or use grunt-like breaths to talk into a fake telephone. The breath control demonstrated by Koko that impressed her researchers the most was her ability to volitionally control her breath to blow into various instruments like recorders and harmonicas. For these behaviors, she was rewarded with a small prize such as food, toys, or play. While these rewards are often attributed as reasons that the research may be flawed, researchers tend to compare their behavior of rewarding Koko for doing something good with many parents who reward children similarly in their homes for behaving, obeying, and excelling.

Koko lived in captivity where she grew very comfortable with humans and homes.

All of these aspects were studied and recorded to show whether or not Koko was capable of verbalization. Because breath control is an important component of speaking and verbalizing, the researchers concluded that Koko seemed to be capable of audible communication. Results such as this indicate that if breath control can effectively be taught and learned just like sign language, then apes and humans may join in conversation one day. Breath control is common and necessary in activities such as running or hunting, but observations and studies of a multitude of animals usually showed that many animals were not likely to utilize breath control when they were relaxed. The research gathered through this experiment came from video recordings in which Koko was in a room by herself, thus lessening the likelihood that her responses could have been prompted by trainers or researchers.

John Dore, a researcher greatly intrigued by Koko compared her path of acquisition of sign language and utterances to that of a deaf child. She was able to learn sign language for dire communications, but for other things she would communicate distress, anger, or happiness, along with many other emotions, through verbal utterances. Even more, she would communicate her thoughts and desires through clapping or jumping gestures. Of all of these gestures, Dore concluded that verbal utterance was the last and least comfortable form of communication for Koko, but that through time and practice, she may use verbal communication more often.