User:Serendipodous/indigo/page 25

Magellan (Zweig)

the 18 survivors of majellans expedition, worn and exhausted and aged, refused offers of food or hospitality, first, barefoot, clad in shrouds and carrtuing candles, they gave thanks to god for their deliverence

Chapman

Just as Edmund Halley's life was tied to Flamsteed, so Bradleys was to Halley

Huis uncle, an amateur astronomer named Dr James Pound, recommended the young Bradley to Halley, and it was likely at Halley's request that Bradley was made Savillian Professor of Astronomy at Oxford in 1721 and later, the third astronomer royal after Halley's death in 1742.

Bradley was given several ecclesiastical incomes, and seemed destined to a career in the church, but chose astronomy instead, likely cutting his wage by an order of magnitude

As part of a project to determine Parallaxes (the observation of which was still a century away) Bradley determined a secondary motion in the star gamma draconis in the opposite direction

a flag changed ints direction as the boat changed its direction, always in line with the wind. As the Earth approaches starlight, it is bunched up, causing to appear displaced by 20.25 arcseconds (the actual value is 20.47 arcseconds)

nutation as a nod in the earth caused by the moon's 18 year cycle

both were in accordance with Newton

Bradley was able to show that quadrants could be distorted if composed of different metals

His accounting for such things as temperature and pressure meant that his observations are the earliest relied on by modern astronomers

Pasachoff

Published in 1614, observed in December 1609, first noted in an almanac in 1611

Court astronomer to the Margrave of Ansbach

January 7 1610 (Julian vs gregorian)

1611 Marius realised there were four moons

galileo dates the four moons to the 13th of january

his descriptions of the positions of the moons on that date agrees with computer simulations

Marius didn't confirm all four stars until March

jusgemetn in 1903:galileo made statemetns in the assayer (published two yars before Marius's death from illness in 1625) which he must have known were false

Marius First to show thje satellites orbits in 1614

Marius cites dec 29 1609 as the date, which makes the actual date 8 Jan 1610

Vanin

mayr claimed that the orbits of the moons were inclined up-to-down along the z axis

galileo arguede that they were parallel to the ecliptic, and their apparent inclination along the z axis (down up vs up down) only occurred when Jupiter itself was above or below the ecliptic.

As Jupiter was below the ecliptic at the contested time, the satellites should have appeared down-to-up

Because Jupiter was below the ecliptic for two years. Galileo concluded that, for Marius to have seen the satellites in the configutation he claimed, he would have had to have seen them two years later.

As the orbits of the jovian satellites are inclined relative to jupiter, both galileo and marius were in fact wrong

Galileo was also wrong that Jupiter was alwways below the ecliptic in 1610, as it shifted to above that year

By the 18th century, German sources, partioculary humboldt, were championing mayr as the true discoverer

Marius

"In recounting all this, I am not to be unerstood as wishing to lessen Galileo's repuation or to snatch from him the discovery of these Jovian stars among his countrymen in Italy- far from it. <y object rather is that it may be understood that these stars were not shown to me by any mortal in nay way but weere discovered and observed by me by my own investigation, in germany, almost at the very time, or slightly before it, as galileo first saw them in Italy. The credit therefore of the first discovery of these stars in Italy is deservedy assigned to Galileo and remains his. Whether any among my german countrymen has discovered them before me I have been unable to make out. My experience is altogether the contrary, for there are those who have inblushingly accused both galileo and myself of being mistaken, but i have no doubt that those persons are penitent and ashamed of their mistake, and of their hasty judgement of the labours of others. so if this little book of mine shall reach florence and come into Galileo's hands, I pray that he will receive it in the same spriti in which it was written by me."

He initially called the satellites the Saturn, Jupiter, Venus and Mercury of Jupiter, excluding Mars as it was "alwways held to be an unlucky planet". Ganmymede was Jupuiter as it reflected the most light

concluded that Jupiter was half the diamter of the Earth.

A dilligent scrutiny of these jovians shows no trace of the ruddiness of man, who is therefore deservedly excluded from this happy jovian fellowship

"perhaps some will be found" he agrees that wish to give the stars individual names, and so suggested Io Europa ganymede and callisto, ganymede as the brightest, for the boy carried to heaven by zeus

"Jupiter is much blamed by the poets on account of his irregular loves" three in particular

these names were suggested by Kepler

Marius was friends with muichael mastlin and tycho brahe, which brought him into contact with tycho brahe. He was also a student and tutor at Padua

Kepler and Marius fell out somewhat over heliocentrism vs tychonicism

buciantini

the divine architect moved the planets to their predestined orbits and set them in circular motions , as only a circular motion allowed a body to move perpetually and to maintian its speed

the house of medici playws a role in the initial estblishmnt of the galiloan myth, determined to turn their humiliation from patroniasing a heretic into another of their long string of reforrms and reconstructions

in teh 19th century, debate raged in England about whether galileo had been tortured

the and yet it moves quote likely originated in a work published in London in the 18th century

rene descartes rectilinier motion maintined

sharatt

galileo would not be completely ubnknown; he would likely occupy a similar place in science to stevin or mersenne or harrioott

he wrote in the vernacular and in language educated peoople couild understand

much of his work was merely in manuscript form

galileo should be seen as a pioneer modern physicist not an overzealous copoernican astronomer stillman drake

galileo elieved that any attempt to find causes in cleestial motions was premature

galileo was put off by kepler's copernicanism

he supplimented his income with private tuition and student boarding

only a prince like cosimo could grant galileo the spare time to do his theoretical work. a republic like venice would not

he suggestdd to multiple people thjat a research professorship be created specifically for him

source for lenses was florence rather then venice

most of the discoeries in siderus were suspected, but not the satellites

galileo bonaiuto ahd been a succesful doctor professor and administrator and held high public office in the venetian republic

on the 19th of february 1616, the church issued uits injunction

on the 5 march, galileo was ordered not to teach copernicanism

was the decree a forgery, or just bad beurocracy?

anti-aristotelianism could be traced back to seneca and was present in mediaeval thought eg pierre duhem

there is no evidence that galileo challenged aristotle while a student

roberto bellarmino (robert bellarmine to the English after his controvery with James I)

Clavius was unsatisfied with the idea that astronomers only had to save appearances

john philiponus had pointed out aristotles mistake on falling objects a thousand years earlier, as had many medieval philosophers

benedetti had done the smae, and stevin

his work atr pisa on incluined planes and falling bodies was inconclusive as he hiself admitted

a body on a smooth plane can be moved by any force, no matter how slight

galileo believed natural motion circular, aristotle beliecved that only for the heavens

1591 already convinced the earth rotates on its axis

he had guaranteed over generous dowerwries for his sisters, lead to lawsuits

he first espousd copernicanism in may 1597 in a letter to jacopo mazzoni a scholar of aristotle

beign a good catholic did not mean exemplary, it was more in the mafia sense of "a friend of ours"

scripture claimed thje heavens were corruptible, not that the earth moved

he was generous to those close to hm, often beyond his means

his bastard family was not commented on at the time

galileo ahd hoped that the new star might show annual parallax, but it did not

10 july 1610 appiointed by cosimo 25 huly, sees satuirn tiple

"this sort of perosn thisnk that philloosophy is a book liek the aneneid or the odyssey thruths are to be soyutght mot in the world or in nature but to use their wods by comparing texts

the discovery that the planets were opaque and reflected sunlight surprised even kepler

jesuits had been observing venus before castellui's letter

"Did castelli8 not know that the demonjstrateions produced earlier were sufficient to cinvincde those who can reason and want to tknow the truth but that to convince those who are iobstinate and care only for empty applause of the stupi9d nmob the witness of the stars come down to earth to speak for themselves woudl nto sduffice?

thanks to galileos discoveries and cesi's funding and organization, the lincean became the first successful scientific society

the jesuuits backed up many of galileo's claims to ballarmine, thogh they failed to see the stars in the milky way, the companions of satrun, and were divided on the unevenness of the moon

at the time, pidgeon meant simpleton

1612 galileo writes discourse on floating bodies after barberini debate, second edition within a year writes in italian

s;overs only floated when dry

galileo wanted to be sole discoverer of all things with the telescope. that he and scheiner had both discovered sunspots is now considerd true

the chinese had been aware of sunspots for centuries

scheiner published well before galileo

autumn 1613: castelli becomes a mathematics lecturer at pisa

"it was pointless to respond to [columbe] whio did not even understand the most basic elements of astronomy

columbe made an argument from theology, a theme galileo could no longer ignore

a conversation in dec 1613 between costelli and christina led to galileo letter to castelli, whihc was explanded into the letter to the grand dutchess christina

it was not read widely and not published until 1636

after caccinis attack, barberini warned galileo not to step outside mathematics and physics

february 1515 letter to castelli is sent to the inquisition

cacchii then went to rome and quoting columbe, decried copernicanism ags agains tscripture

caccini also attacked mathematics as adiabolical art

bellarmine answered that the bible was revealed throgyuh teh holy spirit, and is innerant, though alowing for reconsideration should conclusive proof be found

galileo responded that thsoe who had accepted copernicanism did so against their own initial beliefs in its absurdity and so had considered all sides, and so thier opinoons were more valid than those who simply read data unintelligently.

galileo poointed out that copernicus had never treated his idea as a hypothesis- the idea that he did came ffrrom the preface written by osiander

galileo countered that the church fathers never discussed the mobiity of the earht adequately and in any case the counicl of trent wasa reposnes to protestantism

"our writes knew othe truth about the form of the heacvens but the holy sopirit who was speaking througnh them did not wish to teach men wthose things that are useful to nmo one for salvation"

if a propsiotionj of secular knowledge is not proved conclusively and contains something contrary to scritioo then "it is to be reckoned undoubtedly falso and shown to be sloo by every possible means" gallileo

upon returning to rome, he began his research into longitude

november 1618 comets

galileo believed he was more faithful to aristotle than his followers because aristotle based his beliefs on sensory experience, rather than simply quoting others books.

the ball dropped from a mast of a skinking ship

galileo did not believe in paradigm shifts. He reminds the reader that all copernicans were one aristatelians

law of pendulums discussed in the dialogue

the idea that the objects on earth could have a combined motion with the earth was alien to aristotelians, who did not accept combined motion

relativity of motion and the ship metaphor dialgoue

galileo was not a good theoretical astronomer

Venus and mercury were never far from the sun; the superior planets epicycle motions were always parallel to the sun's orbit around the earth. These were mere facts to potelmaics , but to copernicans tehy were explained by geliocentrism

scheiners observatiions of sunspots were more accurate than galileos

if galileo wishes to challenge appeal to authority, why does he expect everyone to accpt his own? schiener

Who are we to decide whether the universe is too large?

two new sciences

merton rule

th times squared rule

com,bined motion

Dugas

galileo offended john di medici

The French Court wrote to Galileo: "Discover as soon as possible some moon to which his Majesty's name may be fitly attached. You will gain renown, and likewise lasting riches for yourself and your family."

koestler

By 1638 Galileo was completely blind

The publication of his books was banned in catholic countries

galileo to teh comte de noailles: " I had decided not to publish any more of my work, and yet, in order to save it from complete oblivion, it seemed to me wise to leave amanuscript copy in some place where it woulld be available at least to those who follow intelligently the subjects I have treated."

Galileo handed the manuscripts to him when he visited rome

two new scineces were materials mechanics (strength) and kinematics

"Propositions arrived at by purely logical means are completely empty as regards realiyt. Because Galileo realised this, and particularly because he drummed it into the scientific world, he is the father of modern physics, indeed of modern science altogether." Albert Einstein.

"as if moles were grown tothe size of whales, but maintained the instincts of moles"

"galileo did not invent the telescope, nor the miscroscope, nor the thermometer, nor the pendulum clock. he did not discover the law of inertia, nor the parallellogram of forces and motions, nor sunsopots. He made no contributiion to theoretical astronomy, he did not thrown down weights from the leaning tower of pisa and did not prove the truth of the copernican system. He was not tortured by the inquisition, did not languiish in its dungeons, did not say eppur si muove, and he was not a martyr for science."

"in a 19th century setting, he would have been the socialist son of a liberal father"

galileo's early writings contain nothing of a revolutionary nature

padual made many contributions to dynamics at padua, thoguht eh results were not published until later in life

theemosxcope, rather than a thermometer

from galileo's first letter to kepler we know he was a copernican "many years" before 33.

but his first public written affirmation of copernicucanuism was only in 1613, 16 years later

in a recorded lecture from 1606, he repreats all of ptlemy's argumnts against the earth's motion

the catholic heirarchy, until 1616, encouraghed disucssion of heliocentrism as long as it applied only to scientific rather than theological matters

"one may write freely as long as on keeps out of the scristy" cardinal dinito galileo in 1615

mocked and derided as copernicus

capran had liley plagiarised galileo's guide to the compass, but he also showed his mathematics to be erroneous

1607 galileo decried both capera and his teatcher as a venom spitting basilisk; that malecvoent enemy of hon9our and of the whole of mankind; a greedy cvulture sweeping at the unborn young to tear its tender limbs to pieces"

"he was utterly decoid of any mystical ciontemplative leanings, in which the biter passions could from time to time be resolved; eh was unab;e to transcend himself and find refugue, as ie-ler did inhs darkeshours in the cosnmic mystery. Gallileo was whooly and frightening,lly modern"

galielo's star maps are so innaccurate that most star clusters, even easy ones like the pieades, can only be identified with diffuclty

thomas harriot had looked at the moon through a telescope in 1609, thoguh didn ot publish his findings- even rudolf ii looked at the moon through a telescope

he was the first to pubnlish whatr whe saw and teh first to write ina language that made thers notice

galileo's impace was due in no small part to how readable his text was kepler and copernicusw did not write fo0r the masses

"man has wea e out a net and this net throwne upion the heavens adn nwo thaey are his owne

galileo was unable to explain why and how the thing worked, and many had no idea how to use it, so many who looked saw mnothing, and many rfused to look

"a clash of individual empermaents aggrivated bty unlucky coincidences"

gqlileo webnt to rome in 1611 if we were still living in the ancient republic, said cardinal del monete, i verily believe that there would have been a coluumn on the caqpital erected in galileos ghoonour

clavius was converted as were most of the jesuits at the collegio romano

the collegio had confirmed the pahses of venus

this advanced the tychonuic system

it was the aristotelians at univeristies for whom galileo was an eternal enemy

archimedes floration was besed on density, aristotle, based on shape

"cysat to scheiner": either the sun sheddeth tears or she is blemishe dby spots" 1612 (mist)

kwpler rsponded that he ahd seen a sunspot in 1607 the size of a meagre flea" but had nmistaken ot for a tanist of mercury

similar accounts dating back to the days of charlemaigne

galileo camed priority hacving shown the sunspots to "seeral prelates nad gentlemen of rome" whom he did not name

thomas harriot may have been the first to observe them

galileo had made his first enemy

here, 1613, inhis responst to scheiner provided his fifrrst work on the principle of inertia and also ghis first open defense of coperinicanuism

evenm tje fuitire urban viii expressed admioration fofr the publication

colombe was the first to attcak copernicanuism on scriptural grounds

castelli was the father of modern hydrodynamics

"and as to the the propositions which are states but not rigorusly demonstrated anything contrary to the bible involved by them must be held undoubtely false and should be proved so by every possible means"

such statements were relegated to the rank opf working hypotheses with the implied assumption that sripture would have to be reinterpreted in light of the proof

galileo is shifting the burden of oproof onto hsi accusers becaus he cannot provide conclusive proof of copernicanism becauee, frankly, it does not exist

galileo does nto proide any evidence in supprot of copernicanism, only suggests it is proven beyond doubt

galileo knew that if the earth were stopped, the entire woprld would be anhillated

the bishop of fiesole demanded coperniucs be hjailoed, only to learnhed been dead for 70 years

lorini#'s response to the leter to cestelli contianed two cahnges to the innitial texts Scripture overshaodws itrs won meaning became scriputre percverts its own meaning; taken in the strict literla meaning lloook as if they differred from the truth became false in the literal reading

tehse words wre criticised by the inquisition, but the case was dismissed

caccini himself took a case before the inquisition, but the case was dropped

cardinal robert bellarmine was the most respected theologian in christendom

bellarmine wrote polemics against protestantism and anglicanism, seeing the church as a superstate

he had particupated in the trial of giodarno bruno]

In a letter to dini dated 23 March Galileo refused to compromise, clainming Cperniucyus intended his hypothesis to be read absolutely

£to say that the assumption that the earth movesd and the sun stand still saves all the celestial appeances better than doi exxentrics and epicycles is to sopeak with giood sense and to run nio risk whatsoever. such a manner iof speaking suffices for a mathematician. But tio want to affirm that the sun in very truth is at the centre of the universe and only rotates on its axis without travelling from east to west and that the earth is situated in the third sphere and revoles very swiftly around the sunis a very dangerous attitude and one calculated not only to aropus all scholastic philosophers and theologicans but also to injyue opur holy faithe by cotradicting scriptures

ballarmine

the counil of trent forbids interpretation of the scriptures in a way contrary to the common agreement of the holy fathers

if there were a real proof that the sun is the centre of the unicerse.... then we shoudl proceed with great circumspectin in explainign passages of the scripture which appear to teach the contrary, and we shoud therefore ratger gave to say that we did not understand them

to me the surest and swiftes way to prove the position of copernuicus is not contrary to scripture would be to give a host of proofs that it is ture adn that the contrary cannot be maintained at all, thus, since no thrths can contradict one another, this and the bible must be perfoectly harmonious. but how can i do this and not be merely wasting my time, when these periatetics who must be concinced show themselves incapable of following even the simpliost and easist of arguments galileo to dini

koestler belies he is referring to ballarmibne

Galileo later claimed that as copernicus's book wa accepted by the chuch it could not be heretical, though this is only as spoken of hypothetically

when galileo arrived in rome, grienbger said that it would be better for galileo to bring convincing scientific proof of copernicus raatrher than adjusting scripture to him

he was an excellent rhetoriian, often bettern in voice than in pen, amplifying and parodying the argumetns wued against him. even his opponents were stunned at his "wondrous feats2 of argument.

"[the theory of tides] was in such glaring contradiction to fact, and so absurd as a mechanical theroy, th field fo galileo's own immortal achievemtns, that its conception can only be explained in psychological terms. It is completly out of keeping with his intelelctual stature, the method and trend of his thought it was not a mistake but a deleusion- koesler

1 the sun is the centre of the world and wholly immovable of local motion

2 the eaqrth is not the xentre of the world nor immopvable but moes as a whole, also with diurnal motion

foolish and absurd philosophicallyu and formally bheretical inasmuch as it expressly contradicts the diotrine of holy sriptuire k in many passages both in their literal meaning and according to the geberak interpretation of the fathes and doctors

this decree was watered dow2n by more enlightened cardinals whose final decree did not inclyude the word heresy

march 5 1616

th immobility of the sun was never offiically declared heresy, only in legal opinion

the initial decree was opnly made publlic in 1633, during galilos final confrontation

copernicus's book was "suspended until corrected" but galileo's books were never placed n the index ebcause none of them made an unequivocal statement regarding copernicus

IN 1520, DE REVOLUTIONARIBUS WAS ALLOED TO BE PUBLISHED WITH THE ADDITIOIN OR ALTERATION OF NINE SENTENCES THAT MADE HELIOCENTRISM SEEM CERTAIN

The jesuits had converted tothe tychonic system

a day after the decree, galioleo

as may be seen from the very nature of this business ia an mmnot in the least concerned, nor wouldha i have been involved had it not been for my enemies, as i have said before

galileos name was not m,entionedin the decree

a week later he had an audience with the pope

confidentaially but firmly enjoined to keep himself within the presscribed limits

"we roberto cardinal ballarmine, having heard that it is caluimnously reported that signor galileo galili has in our hand aabjured and has also been punished with salutary penance, and being rewuwstted to state the truth to thism declare that the said galileo has not abjeured, eithjer in our hand or the hand of any other person here in rome"

"to fight persojalities who cannot be attacked without ruiining oneself sooner or later you will hear i8n forlence that he ash madly tuimbled into some unsusepected abyss the tuscan ambassador

1618 three comets

jesuit hroatio grassi of the colleium romanum, endorsed tycho's parallax measurements re comets

galileo covered the marjis in insutls "piece of asininity," "elephantine" "baffoon" and "evil poltroon" "ungrateful villain"

the ingratitude was supposedly that he did not mention galileo, who had barely mentioned comets previously, except to vaguely endorcde tycho in his letter on suspots

But galileo had to reject tycho completly in order for copernicus to be accepted

their orbits are so elliptical that they could not be reconciled with galilo's insintance that all orbits must be circular

"alleged observations" "ttycho';s monkey planets"

grassi had aclaiemd that projectiles get heated by friction, which they do, a claim galileo rubnbishted

to exicete in us tates odours, and sounds I believe that nothing iis requireed in exxternal bodies except shapes numbers and slow or rapid movements. I thihk that if ears tongues adn noses were to be renoved shapes and numbers and motions would remain but not odorus tastes or sounds. the latter i beleive are notheing more than names when separated from living beings

fifrst mention of a mechanistic universe (?)

"grienberger, succeeding clavius at the collego romano "if galileo had not incurred the displeasure of the company, he could have gon one writign freely abiout the motion of the earth to the end fo his days"

1623 maffeo barberini elected in 1623

baberini had intervined in favour of galilio in 1616 and written a poem about him in 1616

galieo came to rome in spring of 1624 and was showered with gifts, including a pension for his son, a precious painting and a gold and silver medal. He had six long audiences with urban

galioleo could write anything he wanted about copernicus, provided he spoke only hypothetically; the decree of 1616 was not revoked

just because the idea explains certain phenomena, that does nmot mnmean it si true for god is all powerful and could have produiced the phenomena throgh entirely diffeent means

january 1630 the dialogue was completed

"from a most eminent and learned person and before whom one must fall silent£ £this admirable and angelic doctirne"

two world systems

first day, refute aristotle

second day relativity of motion and the ships mast argument

he believed that fre falling bodies described a circular path, rejected kepler's laws

galileo claimed falsley that copernicus didn't need eipcycles

lie to children

saves phenona rather than true

refuses to acknowledge the tychonic system

if the sun tracvels around the earth teh spots will look the same only if thea lso assuime that the suns axis always remains parallel to itself, and this he finds very hard and almost inmpossible to believe

yet this si what the earth does; its axis remains parallel to itself at 23 1/2 degrees

thanks to plague breaking out in rome, and his connection to the royal court of tuscany, galileo manmaged to get the book published before the roman censors could read it

at trial, galileo dened the strongly worded injunction and produceed ballormines certificate

the inquisition showed through a long lsit of quotations that galileo had not only discussd copernicus, he ahd taught defended and held it and called thsoe who did not share it mental pygmies, dumb idiots, adn hardly deserving to be called human beings

“Man cannot presume to know how the world really is, since God could have brought about the same effects in ways unimagined by humans. It is not proper to restrict God’s omnipotence”

Mason

Born in Pisa, Tuscany in 15th Feb 1564

Familw=y was oriiglly from the capital, Florence

Father, Vincenzo, was a musician and musical theorist

Famioly, once rich and powerful, had fallen into the trap of the impoverished aristocrat, forced to look rich whilst strugling for money

Galieo0 was expexcted to become a money earner

At 13 he entered into a Benedicting monestary to be taught the trivium and quaddrivium

He wanted to join the order but his father would have had to pay for his upkeep for his entire life.

Galileo was expected to becomea a doctor

September 1581, 17, galileo wnt to the UIniversity of Pisa

found Euclid, fell in love with mathematics

ca,e home wioth two years mmedcal, two years maths, but no degree

Unable to get a uni teaching job, he taught mathematics privately and worked as his fahers assistant

tere he learned of his father's experiments with harmony and how tension, length and diameters of strings affected sound

expermimentati0n became a byword for him

He began a series of experiments with balls, levers and pendulums.

In 1588, delivered a lecture to the Florentine academy on the mathematics of sdante's inferno

with the help of a athematician named guidobaldo del monte he obtained a teaching position in 1589 at thje university of Pisa

ubnforttunately the river arno flooded en route,. meaning hie mssed his first six lexctures and was fined aprt of his salary

He was fined even more for not wearing a toga, which he found a nuicence,

Aristotle claimed that a 100 lb wight would fall ten times faster thjan a 1 poubnd weight

Galileo conducted his experimetn (tower?) with cannonballs. the heavy one hit the ground before the lighter one, but with a idfference of two inches

Aristotel;ioans considered the matter settled, but Galileo argued that he was still more right than Aristotle.

Galileo, as he was prone,. made too many enemies at Pisa and went instead to the University of Padua in 1592

His dfather was dead and he was now ressponsible for hios sister's dowry payments to er husband, his other sister's convent paymkents until she could be found a husband, his brothers and mother#s upkeep

Slept ina cave with two friends to stay out of the subn. CO2? entered the cave and killed both his friends, left him chronically ill

In Padua, Galileo fathered three illigitimate children with Marina Gamba Virginia, Livia and Vincenzio

At paduia, he incvented the geometric compass

He also studied ballistics, showing that canonballs followed a predictable route, and travelled longest when fired from 45 degreses

He becamea private tutor to Cosmo de medici; his mother,

In 1609, gfalileo heard of a dutch invention called a spyglass, he made a more powerful version himself and presented it to the rulers of venuice the grand duchess christina, took an interest ih his career

As a reqward he was given life tenure.

In November 1609, galielo managed to grind lenses to 29x magnification, and began making observations of the Moon

It is like the face of the earth itself; which is amrked here and there by chains of mountains and depths of valleys

In Januaery 1610, "four planets never seen from the beginning of the world"

He dedicated the starry messenger to cosimo, now3 the grand duke of tuscany, and naemed the moons the medicaean statrs

Spotring 1610: Galileo became chief mathematician tat unioversity of pisa and philosopher and matheamtician o the grand dujke of tuscany

Many with less powerful telescopes were beginning to question his discoveries

He became a memmber of the Lycean academy which would pyublish his work

either moon or sun perfect

jupiters moons

phases of venus

in 1613 a (possibly deliberately( inaccurate copy of one of galileo's letters fell into the hands of th inquisition- an accurate copy was sent to clear his name

his daughters (13 and 12) were finally admiotted to the convent of san matteo near fl;orence

Cardinal Cesare Baronio: bible teaches how to go to heaven, not how heaven goes

Copernicanuism was becoming widespread among both educators and clergy

if the purpose of the bible was to teach astronomy, why did it not mention any of the planets

Edict of 1616: teaching heliocentrism was heretical

October 1616 galileop topld to keep his mouth shut daugher virginia becomes sister maria celeste

1619: Marina gamba ded. June, cosmo recocognizes vincenzsio (11) as legitimate

1620 mother dies

1621: Gregorty 15 becomess pope

1621, coaimo dies. his son, 10, becomes grand duke

1622: Cardinal Maffeo Barberini, whio had suported galileo in the past, becomes pope

Assayer his work on comets

He and the poope met 5 times, and the pope agreed thjat the idea of copernicanism could be taught if it was expressdd only as an idea, rahter thn truth

Letter to Ignoli, expamded onto teh dialoguie concerning the two chief world systems

1629 30 years war sister in law and eight children fleeing, more mouths to feed age 63. 1631Then plague takes his brother michelangelo

1629: Went to rome to guide the approval process

diaslogue published in 1632, sold out

Pope urban in tropuble; taking sides in teh catholic fight for the throne of the holy roman empire, using his position to enrich his family

he likely never read the dialogue, but others did, he felt betrayed.

1632, galileo summpned before the inquisition

12 April 1633: Galileo goes on trial, experts claiemd that thje dialoguie did supoprt copernicus

bnuit the chuirch had allowed it to be published

After three weeks in a dungeon, galielo was asked to abhjure copernicansim. He made a statemetn claiming he had accidentally claimed it to be correct

on the 22nd June 1633 he was sentenced to life imprisonment

Galileos sentence was softented to house arrest and he was allowed to stay at the home of the archbishop of sienna

the dialogue ex0ploded on the black market, not un-banned by vatican until 1822

he writes the two new sciences

1633: allowed to return home

march 1634: maria celeste dies of dystenery,

1638: Dioalgogue finally publiashed in the protestyant netherlands, but galileo coudl not read it, he was almsot blind

Teh first scientist to instists tha there had to be evidence for an idea before it could be cosnduiered true (dubious)

steele

Galileo Buonaiuti had been a famous doctor in Florenmce in the 1400s. Soon the family had taeken his name

Vincenzio was a lutenist and singer, and music teacher (most populatr instrument)

Vincenzio was a revolutionary in musical theory, and was always arguing and ebating, a trit his son inherited

harvey blood circulation 1577

galileos nickname at pisa was contenditore, wranger, a person who loves to argue

Ostilio ricci chief mathematician to the grand due of tuscany, lecture, galileo enrappred and began conversing with him

Padua would be the happiest period of galileo's life

galss came from the famous glassworks at the venetian island of murano

criticised orazio grassi over his opinions of comets

the arguiment in the dialoge was won by the coperinican supoporter

the thirty years war was causing catholics to go on the defensive

galileo arguied that the book showed both sides of the argumetn fairly

mctavish

learned to play the lute and played all his life

he noticed a channdelier swuiniogn and timed its slowing rate with his puilse. He noticed that even as the chandelier swung less vigrously, it still took the same amount of time to swing

He questioned his teachers as much as they questioned him, and when their ansdwers did not satisfy him, he told them

He was not popular

Medicine was too stuck in the past

his pupil vincenzo viviani described him dropping balls from the leaning tower of pisa

On Motion- attacked aristotle

Padua- for his students, mechanics- a body needs only a small force to move it

increase his income by making instruments (three times slary already at padua)

his forst tel;escope had 9x 8x magnification

1611 teh vatican appointed a special commision to investigate galileo#'s discoveries. Clavius, an onld friend of galileos; argued that there was nothng in them to suggest copernicus was riht

Gallileo visited pope paul and cardinal barberini, and considered both a success

father christoph schiener jesuit priest observed sunspots and concluded they were planets

galileo's letters refuting scheiner were presented as evidence for his copernicanism

cardinal bellarmine challenged galileo to shjow that his views did not contradit the bible, galileo tried, but ballarmine was unconvinced

1616 the poope ordered galileo to not "hold or defend" the copernican view

galileo's enemies placed a forged docuiment in the vatican records saying that he had been ordered to neither hold nor defend Copernicanism, nor to teach it in any way

discourse on comets

tthe assayer also poked fun at hjessuits who were far from pleased

the dialogue was written in italian rather than latin

balanced account of the two systems and not come out in favour of the heliocentric view

the aristotelian was called simpliciius, the salviati, simpl;cius was portrayed as a fool

his enemies suggested simplicius was the pope, naturallyy rbain was furious

because ballarmine was dead, he could not challenge the forged document

veolocity time distance sqwuared

discourses was pubhlished in the netherlands (discourses and mathematical demonstrations converning the two new sciences

with his new forumale, galileo was able to show that canonballs moved ina aparabopla

dickmann

vincenzio sold cloth on the side to make ends meet

he took a sjob as a nobleman's musician and moved to florence

Galuileo cound read latina dn greek before attending schol

he was sent to the abbey of vallembrosa

His fathjer refused to pay for another two yars and did not believe maths would lead to a good job

"never assuume as true that which requires proof"

galileo made no money from the pulsilopgium, so he was sure to patent his later inventiions

highly acyurate scale called a hydrostatic balance

the paduan position was worth a thousand crowns a year with an additional bonus of 500 crowns

aristotle believed that, as the moon was close to earth, it must have been contminasted by the planets imperfection

galileo was able to measure the eight of the moon's mountains by timing the shadows

the milky way was as cluster of stars

another down. jupiter

galileo observed that sunspots moved more slowly the closer they were to the edges of the sun. this was foreshortening, at teh eedge t he spot is moving toward or a way from the eye

this meant they had to be at least close to the sun

Venice was famous for freethinking, and people had not been tried for heresey. But when galileo moved back to florence, he moved back to the church's clutches

drake

three of the ten cardinals refused to sign his sentence

modern sciience was the fusion of useful science (techne) with pure science (episteme)

aristotle natural place

galileo believed that a perfect understanding of nature was impossible, but that human intellect had perfectly understood some things, such as mathematical proofs, science posed no threat to philosophy and could only improve

galileo rejected copernicanism in his earliest surviving work

teh story of the tower of pisa was related after his death by a student who was not born when it took place

"We need guidees in forests and unknown lands, but in but on plains and open spaces only the blind need guides. It is better for such people to stay at huome, but anyone with eyes in his head and his wits abouthim couls serve as a guide for them."

Born in Pisa on feb 15 1564

monestary of vallemroso entered as a novice

still taught by monks in florence but no longer a novice

matriculated at the university of Pisa in 1581

gained a reputation for contradicting his professors

1587 centres of gravity of solids, an asdvance beyond archimedes

1589 appointed chair of mathematics at pisa. Poorly paid, as mathemtics was not considered importnt there

Aristotle says that a hundred pound ball falling from a height of 100 cubits huits the ground before a one pound ball has fallen one cubit.n I say they arrive at the smae time. You find onmakling the test that the larger ball beats the smalelr one by two inches. Now behind theset wo inches you want to hid Aristotles 99 cubits and speaking only of my tiny aerror, remain silent about his enrmous mistake.

1612: galileo opponent conducted experimetn from Piasa tower

expressed doubt about Aristotle's claim that light things and heavy things fell at the same speed.

it appears to me that they who in proof of anything rely simplyon the eeight of authorit, without adducing any argument in support of it, act very absurdly. I one the contrary, wish to be allowed to raise questioons freely and to answer without any adulation as becoems those who are truly in search of the truth- dad.

1592: appointed professor at padua at three times salary

paduua was known europe wide as a medical school (IRONY). THE PROFESSOR OF ANATOMY FABRICIUS WOULD LATER TEACH WILLIAM AHRVEY

augmented his salary by teaching military architecture and fortification

not until 1595 did he show any interest in astronomy

in 1597 galileo made his first defense of copernicanuism thhat we have

letter to kepler

teh distancess fallen are equal to the squares of the elapsed times

measurement was a part of astronomy but not cosmology

1603 keplers supernova parallax beyond the moon

debate ebtween galileo and cesare cremoniini, chair of philosophy at padua, over change in the heavens

gali8leo parodied iot under an assumed name in the rustic tuscan dialect

aristotle was qualitiative galileo was quantitative

aristotle: mathematical precision is not to be found where matter is involved

galileo: true but where it is found, why not make use of it?

1605: tutor to cosimo de medici

asked for help re his reappointment as the debates over hte star had made it less likiely

he hinted that the now vacant post of court mathematician would be nicfe too

no comment

in 1607 a student named balthesar Capra plagiarised a work ioopf galileo's on his secotr. As the work had been dedicated to a prince, galileo had to assert primacy, and did so. capra was expelled and hte book confiscated. This left galileo secretive and misturstful of others with his discoeries.

galileo had been a friend of capera's father

others would use the accusation as ecidence against hsi invention of the telescope

only circuilar motion was perpetual, linear motion was not, as it would mean an infinite universe (indefinite?)

to galileo, a body must lose speed as it m,oves away from earht's centre

over short horizontal distances, as in the 1608 ezsspoeriment, a body could be said to be parallel to earth's centre

sarpi, the resident theologiaan of venice, notified galileo of the telescope

at padua he learned that a foreigneer intendeed to seel it to venice at a high price

presetned his spyglass to the doge, got double salary and life tenure

in december 1509, he built a 20x telescope and observede the moon#

he then discovered jupiters moons

showed that the milky waty was xcomposed of ubncountable stars

the jesuits obntained a telesopcppe powerful enough

clavius dissented from the idea of mountains on the moon, optical illusion

some argued thjat the images were merephuantons of the lens, and that a full theory of optics would be needed before they could be trusted as real

unalterable ingenerable [pe4rfect, spherical

galileos experiments with mirrors of all shapes had showed him that a perfetly spherical moon would only reflect a single pringt point of light from the sun

using surveying methods, he measutrd heights on the mu=oon of upt to four miles

phases of venus, orbiting trhe sun

tycho's system: how could the sun attract all the other plents but leacve the earth?

telescope was coined at a banquet for galileo at the lincaean academy

shape vs compiosition flo0ating

mathematics was neither an abstract persuit nor alien to phtysics, but a part o f physics. if math did not agree with resultsm, then something has been left out

the essences of things cannot be known, science is concerned with protperties and observations

galileo did not want the church to adopt copernicanims, what he wanted was for the chuurch to not stifle debate on issues that could be resoloved without scripture

1613 a group of professors at pisa came together to denounce anything galileo said

letter to castelli: theologians should be allowed fredome inquiry on any matter that could be resilved by "sensate experiences and necessary demonstrations"

the church fathers and the council of trent argued that faith need only apply to those facts needed for salvation

cardinal bellarmine recieved aletter froma copernican and said thjat as long as the discussion was hypotheital it could sitll be had, but to assert the earth's motion would be too counter to scri[p[ptuire

1 that the sun is the centre ofthe world, and totally immovable as to locomotion

censure: all say that the said proposition is foolish and absurd in philosophy, and formally heretical inasmuch as it contradicts the opinioon of holy scri[tuire in many places, according to the words themselves and according to the commkon exp the concession of pwoer by the church to aristotle and his followers was seen as a novelty by galileo ositions and meanings of the church fathers and doctors of theology

2. that the hearth is neither in the centre of the world nor nor immovable, but moves as a whole and in daily motion. censure: all say this propositin receives the same censure in philosophy , and in regard to thelogical verity it is at least erroneous in the faitnh./

philosopphers had ired the internvention of thelogians

for the church to adopt aa literal reading of the bible seemed an unprecendented action to galileo

on the matter of introducing novelties, does anoyone doubt that in wanting minds created free by god to make tehmsleves slaves of others will, most serious scandals will be born? and wanting people to deny their own senses and suibject them to teh rule of another, and allowing persons entirely ignroant of a science as judges over those knowing it, so that by the authority conceded to them they are empowered to have things their way, these are novelties capble of ruiining repyublics and destroying states

the conesson of power by the theologians to aristotle and his followers seemed a novelty to galileo

st augustine or aquinas would say that the bible supported whicheer truth found in nature

24 feb 1616 galileo was ordered not to hold defend or teach the propositions

now silenced, galiileo turned to other things, like using the eclipses of the satellites for navigation

dialogue c9ncerning the two chief world systms

simplicio (Greek aristotelian scholar) vs fillip salviati (died in spain in 1614)

aristotle had assumed what was to be froved, disproven by the craters on the moon

relativity of motion and conservation of motion allowed galileo to discout the idea of the arth's fixed position

ignored kepler's e;;ipses and presented the sun as the centre of all motions

Urban was angry; galileo was told to come to rome himself or be brought in chans and pay the expenses of his arresting officers

was scheiner responsible for the leaking of the unsigned 1616 document that so angered Urban?

it should have been destroyed as it was of no legal value

galileo insisted that "nor teach in anyway!" were not recalled in ballarmine's affidavit

at siena he wrote to his daughter that his name had been struck from the book of the living

marsenne translated mechanics into French long before it was printed in italian

his worka were printed and translated in protestant countries, including the dialogue and th letter to chirstina

Suggett

"A CERTAIN FLEMING" (hANS lIPPERSHEY?) "foumd thje art of seeing far places and things as if nereby."

Working out the principles took him a single day

Galileo presented his far superior telescope to the venetians

Vincenzio had conducted experiments against pythagoras was worng about harmony

Galileo was about to fail his medical exams

his family needed money

the only ancients for whom he had any respect were Euclid asnd Archimedes

Pisa: "philosophising not with due circumspection but merely fropm having memorised a few ill-understood principles"

some claimed an opticcal trick had put the moons in the scope. Galileo offered a large reward to anyone who could invent a trick telescope that put moons specifically around Jupiter and not around every other planet. It was never claimed

aCADEMIA DEL LIJ CEI (SOCIETY OF TEH KEEN EYED) EMPHASWISED PBSERVATION OVER REASON./ uNI MEN WERE CONSPICUOUSLY ABSENT

ga;ileo argued that earth#s motion was simpler (somewhat ironic since he ignored kepler's work that really did make it simpler)

Galileo porposed the idea of inertia, that an objet, without frictioon, would never stop moving

had anyione actual;;ty dropped a ball from the mast of a shiip? there was no reason to expectit would not fall towards the center of the earth

the ball shared the forward motion of the ship

Gal;ileo reason that if the distance one travelled on the earth as it moved was less than the distance fallen from rest, then thre would be no apparent motion.

the tangent only aMOUNTED TO 5 CM A SECOND, WHICH WAS FAR LESS THAN A FALLING DISTNACE

the idea that the earth could have circular motion was anathema to aristotelians

theory of relativity: motion on a moving frame of rerence was indistinguishable from motiioon on a still frame of reference

the tides were caused by an unnevenness in the warth's motion

on one side they added together, on another they cancelled out

1626 record possibly a forgery?

"vain ambitions and ignorance£

"i do not hold and hhave not held this opinioon of copernicus since the command was given to me in me that I must abandon it. For the rest I am here in your hands. Do with me as you please."

galileo showed that the faster an object was moving horizontally when itit hist the ground, the farther it moved as it fell

parabolic, both motions together, not in opposition

"the book of the univere is written in the language of mathematics, and it scharacters are triangles circles and other geomtric figures without which it is humanly impossible to understand a single word of it."

galileo reduced all equations ot eight time, speed and distance

earth air fire and water were irrel;levant, only wight attered

aristotle had been an observer as well as a philosopher

aristotelians were dogmatic

with galileo's death, italy became a scientific backwater

martin marsenne circulated galileo in france

the foudning of the royal society in 1645 led to a discussion of galileo's work

in august 1637, galileo went tottally blind

1979: galileo was officiallly forgiven by the catholic church

ireland

24 hours of trial and error with concave and conveex lenses

seeger

as a child he read the vivid imaginative worlds of ovid, irgile, dante, petrarch and ariosto

galileo was also a skilled painter, and likely would have become one in different cirucmstances

he played both the lute and the organ

pulsilogium, adust a pendulum to the frequency of a patient's pulse

In 1590 he was the first to make a serious study of the cycloid, a word he coined

university of Padua chair of amthematics had been vacant since 1588

cesare creminini

18 years at padua

mechanics (written in the 1590s, published by marsenne

in 1606 invented the first themometer

his lectures on the nova of 1504 filled thousand seat caopacity theatres

grand duchess chrstina a long and active life for ferdinand the I who died 22 days later

his first telescope, concave and convex lenses at either end of a lead tube was presetned to the doge 9x mag in aug 1609

santa giustina in padua, 21 miles awway visible

fourth telescoep 20x the planets apepared as disks rather than stars

fifth telescope 33x he saw the stars in the milky way and the moons of jupiter

7 jan 1610 three stars near jupiter in a straight line, one west two east

next night, all three were west

10 jan only two both east

11 jan the outer moon twice as large

guiio libri and creminini refused to even look through the telescope

it would be 20 years ebfore telescopes better than galileos were manufactured. even kepler, who designed a bterrer one, never actually made one

galileo made 100 telescoes only 10 of them were capable of seeing the moons

despite venice beeing more firendly to his free thought, galileo wanted to return to florence, which was under the church's yoke

in a letter to kepler in dec 1610, he announnced in anagram form the phases of venus cynthiae figuras aemau7latur mater amorum#

the mother of love emulates the shapes of cynthia

in 1611, while in rome announced the discovery of sunspots

johannes frabricius of wittenburg was the first to publish discovery of sunsposts

galileo stayed at the villa 9f filippo salviati

christom=pher scheiner of ingolstadt published his own discoverty of susnports in 1612 jesuit priest and professor of mathematics stars revolcving ar0uind the sun

the dispute with scheiner marked the beginning of an emnity with the jesiuts

ice floated on water because of its shape

galileo pointed out that ice was less dense than water and woudl always float on it

his ownm compelte ignoranced forced him to to seek information from nature itself.

wax models, impregnated with lead and sand

and varied the temperature of the water

ludovico della colombge (archvillain)

a cadre of churchmen and aristotelians, pissed off jesuits and experdient dominucans came together to attack galileo, whom galileo nicknamed the pigion league (colombe dove)

his patron, grand dutchess christina, reacted unnervedly to the suggetionj that (made by a philosophy professor at pisa) galileos assertions of the motions of the earth were against scriptures

galileo responded in his letter to christina

several preachers, such as afra luigi maraffe, head of the dominican order, defended copernicus and caleld galileo a good catholic

the universal authority of the bible owas a matter of some conetention in the post-reformation period, galileos interpretation of joshua was seen as ad hoc

he was genuinely shocked on his return to rome 1615? to find oppositoon to his vies so vehjement that qualifiers (experts) of the holy office had taken offence at the motion fo the earth and the centrality of the sun

24 feb 1616 ultraviolet testibng has shown that if it was fabricated, it was fabricated in 1616 with the other materials

copernicus's book was not prohibited at the time, allowed with "corrections"

suggested using the frequent (more tha a thousand a year) eclipses of jupiter to determine longiotude by cheeckign their timing at certain locations against the time in florence. muliplied by 15, this would give longiutde. uBNFORTUNATELY, THE LACK OF A GOOD ENOUGH CHRONOMETER MEANT that this was impossible

a combination of chronic illness (both genuine and psychosomatic) kept galileo in bed for much iof 1617 and 1618, meaning he missed three comets in auguest 1618

the jesuits had embraced tychobrahe's corerct view of comets as beyond the highest heaven galileo still believed theiy were exhalations

cosimo 2 died in 1621

maffeo barbarini who ahd written a poem in his honour in 1620, became poope urban viii in 1623

after dix long interviews with urban, he could not change his mnd viz copernmicanims, but was assured of his "virtua and piety"

he also created a microscope

giovanni francesco sagredo was the neutral salviati was the copernican (representing galileo) simplicio (sixth century commentator)

tychonic system was excluded from the two world systems

the earth and the planets had commonalities earthshine moonshine pahases of moon and venus

claimed that a ball dropped from the mast of a moving ship would fall as if the ship were not moving- galilen relativity

parallax was dispensed as the stars being too far away

the fourth day was devoted to the tides

keplers laws were the ebst evidence for copernicanism, yet galileo ignroed them

galielo would have fared better if he had been less dogmatic, miore tolerant and more willing to see copernicanism as an as yet unverified hypothesis rather than established truth

the tides were being given as direct evidence for copernicanism

his own "unanswerable argument" had been put in the mouth of a simpleton

"one who did not fear to make a game of me"

in any other situation galileos jusgment would have been more moderate, but he had made it personal

galileos pupils held prominent academic positions- he could not be allwoed to publicly counter the church

galileo, for his part seemed unaware of the serioousness of his situaation, or the vehemence of those opposed to him

1 october 1532, galileo was handed over to the inquisition and ordered to return to rome. He tried to delaym,but was threatened wjuith chains

he was 69

contrary to his previous denial, in his second interrogation he said "my error thne ahd been and i confess it one of vainglorious ambition and of pure ignmoorance and of inandvertence"

22 june garbed in the frobe of a penitential criminal and kneeling jhe recieved sentence

legend has it that he rose muttering "eppur si mouve" nevertheless it moves. As this would have been borderline suicidal, it has been disputed

index expurgatorius, revoved in 1835

certain recent discoveries that depart from common and popular ioiniions have been noisily denied and impugned, obliging me to hide in silencde every new idea of mine untikl i have more than proved it. even the most trivial error is charged t me as a capital fault by the enemuies of innovation making it seem better to remain with hte herd in error than t stand alone in reasoning correctly

they are not illusiions

u haver observed them for eighthteen months

he had shown them tonumerous friencds and to prelates in rome

sobel

his daugjter chose the name celeste likely as a nod to her father

1623 at the age of 59, with his sister virginia dead, everyone close to galileo was either dead or dispersed.

"I render infinite thanks to god for being so kind as to make me alone the first observer of marvels kept hidden on obscruritty for all previous centruies

bawdy humoropus writings, staged debates. dinner parties

during his interdict, galileo studied poetry and wrote literary criticism

"I have observed many tiny animals with admiration, among which the flea is quite horrible, the gnat and the moth very beautiful, and with gerat satisfaction I have seen how flies and other little animals can walk attached to mirrors upside down"

Ueban the VIII wazs interested in science, and a friend of galileo- he had demonstrated his telescope to him and had sided with hin in a debate about floating bodies, and even wrote a poen m for him galileo's glass

Maaria celeste understood her father's faith and how he considered the bible and the uuniverse separate- the former a guide to souls, the later a test for intelligence

we onlly have marias leters to galileo; her father's letteers the abbess burned or buried out of fear upon her death

galileo's middle finger

we know that he wrote plays and poems but only through reference

a tragic mutual incomprehension has been interpreted as a reflection of a fundamental opposition between scinece and faith." jphn paul 2 1992

virginia na dlivia named for galileos sisters

sisters own daughter ended up in the same convent

he was not a jew- galileo

"philosophy is written in the grand book of the universe, which stands continually open to our gaze. But the book cannot be understood unless one first learns to comperehend teh language and to read the alphabet of which it is composed. It is written in the language of mathematics, and its characters are triangles, circles and other geometric figures, without which it is humanly impossible to understand a single word of it. Without these, one wanders about in a dark labyrinth."

vincenzio established a tuning formula for the lute with shrotened fret distances

dialogue of ancient and modern muisic

although galileo had no degreem he acteda s if he did, writing proofs, giving lectures, teaching studients

conic geometry of dante's inferno

1589: Teaching post at the universitty o pisa

he wrote a 300 line verse disparagng the toga, which was widely read across the town (find and read)

culd he have climbed Pisa in a toga?

what if two weights joined while falling, would they suddenly double their speed?

galileo understood the issue was air resistance

60 scudi per year ( for comparison, a doctor could earn 300 scudi per year, and more respectred professors could earth 500 scudi a year

in his old age, galileo considered padua the happiest time of his life

his repuitatiion as a lectyuerer rose his slaariy to 480 florins

In padua galileo met marina gamba

marina was 22 when their first daughter was born in 1600 "of fornication"

another gfirl, livia, in 1601 and a son, vincenzio, in 1606

paid dowry and wedding for his sister including a dress that cost more than 100 scudi

1597: gep,etroc amd ,ilitary compass

demand for the compass was so high that he eventually had to hire a live in instrument maker, which meant he didn't make much money from them, except charging students 20 scudi each to use them.

his book on the operation of the compass was dedicated to his noblest (and most lucrative?) pupils the 16 year old cosimo de medici

christian de medici nee of lorraine,. french, devoutly religious, wife of Gramd duek ferdinando I

he had no formal contract, obsequiiious letters notwithstanding

" I did not think it appropriate, he said in his first letter to cosimo, to appear in front of oyu at once and stare into the eyes of the most serene light of the risign sun without having reassured and fortified myself with their secondary and reflective rays"

cosimo was married at 18 to Maria maddelena archduchess of austria, sister to ferdinand II.

in 1609, as cdosimos father lay ill chritina asked galileo to cast his soroscope. Galileo complied, thogh he was somewhat skeptical of astrology- once noting that astrological predictions were almost always seen in tretrospect

galileo endured the late nights and freezing cold that would become the lot of astronomers the world over

he had difficuklty keeping the telescope still in his shaking hands and beating heart

Cosimo I, grandfather, who had usurped power from the various feuding families of florence, styled himself after Jupiter

galileo dedicated starrry messenger to cosimo II

Galileo initially caleld his moons the cosmian stars; cosimo preferred the medicean stars, to honour his three brothers

55= copies sold out ina week

his request was what he was promised by padua- 1999 scudi

marina gamba married giovanni bartoluizzi. Galileo had no problem- helped him get a job, paid chald supprot for vincenzio still a toddler, and got lenses for his telescopes from giovasnni frm the island of murano

he qiuipped thjat wehn one of his oppoents died, he ight glimpse the medicean stars en route to heaven, having refused to see them on earth

march 1611 " I have been received and feted by many illustrius cardinals prelates and princes of this city, whio wanted to see thi tings I have obhserved and were much pelased

clavius and a group of jesuiits had decioded tp de,enmt the church as the top astronomical authoirity by obaining and using telescopes of their own, confirming galileo's discoveries

a latin oration was recited at the collegio romano

marquuis de montecello federico cesi founded lyncean acadey, free from university influence and international in scope

giovanni demisciani a greek mathematicion,. proposed the name telescope for the instrument

the lynx for sharp observation

to prove his telescope#s truith, gailieo ahd people read an inscriptiion ffrom a mile away

barberini (urban) was a fellow tuscan and pisa graduate

dinner debate about ice floating on water, shape aristotle, density galileo. galileo was right and barbini backed him up if ice was heavier than wter, it would not bob up w=hen submmerged

in 1611, galileo first hear do fa gaggle of his rival attempting to have his views declared heretical, by asking a priest to denounce him. He refused.

his next published book not only discussed the issue if bodies in water but also metnioned the phases of venus and sunspots, challenging arittole on multiple fronts.

cal the new star quintessence or call it polenta, its distance can still be measured

in the part of the skiy that ddeserves t be considered the miost purre and serene of all, i mean in the very face of the sun, these innumerable multitudes of dense, obscrue and foggy materials are disxcocered to be produced an dissolce coninually in brief periods

as iof the book of the uinivere ha been writen to be read only by aristotle and his eyes had been destined to see for all posterity

even those who had rejected the moons of jupiter now saw them as a means to save the sun's perfection

scheiner saw the sunspots as planets; galileo noted that with their irregularities of shape and opacity, they more resembled clouds

Paul II had established the roman inquisition, copernicus dedicated his book

"more abhorrent than death itself" -galileo on heresy

Benedetto Castelli, who had developed the [paper means to observe sunspots, took over galileo's position at pisa, on condition that he never mentiion copernicanuism (he noted that galileo had taught for two decades without doing so)

grand duchess christina a title she retained even after the death of her husband

Cristana was a patron of galileo but had the confidence of cosimo biscoglia, aplatonic philosopher, who conceded that the theing galileo ahd found were real but that the earth could not move as contrary to scripture

"thou fixed the earth on its foundation, not to be moved forever psalm 103

interrrogated castelli on the scriptural issue of copernmicanism

"for in this wise not ojly many contradictions woul be apparent, bnut even grave haeresies and blasphenies since then it would be necessary to give god hands and feet and eyes and human and bodilyu emoitions such as anger regret hatred and sometimes forgetfulness fo thng spast and ignorance of the future"

these were literarty devices to explain the bible to the hoi polloi

"holy scripture and naturea re both emanations from the divine word the motion of the sun across the sky halted by joshua is not, ion the ptolemaic system, the motion of the sun, but the motion of the sphere of fixed stars. the motion of the sun itself is the annual motion of the year, which stopping would not prolongue the day

under the copernican system, all jioshua had to do was temproarily hal tt the spin of the earthj

because galileo believed as kepler did that the rotation of the sun (whi8hch he discoverd) impoelled all the mositon sof the planets, by simply stopping the suin's rotation, he could have stopped the rotation of the earth

"i believe that the intention of holy writ was to persuade men iof the truths necessary for salvatioj. such as neither science nor any other means could render credible, but only the cvoice of the holy spirit.; but I do not think it necessary to beluieve that the same god swho gacve uour senses oru speech oru intellect woudl have put aside the use of these to teach us untead sucht hings aw with their help we coud find out for ourselfves particuolray in the case of those sciences of which there is not the smallest mentiion on hte scriptures and above all in astronomy of which s o littel naotuiice is taken that the names of none of the plaents are mentioned.

tommaso caccin a member of the pigeon leauge, fojund the letter to castelli and made it the basis of a sermopn

men of galilee why do you stand looking up to heaven acts 1

he went as far as to call mathematicians in genral practitionaers of diaboliocal arts and enemies of religion, a statemtn that got him a repremenand and galileo an apologiy

hearing that his letter to castelli had been read by the inquisition, galieo feared (justly) that it may have been altered nd so sent a true copy to circluate among freindsly cardinals.

he expanded his letter to castelli into his letter to the grand dutchess christina which no one deared pruint until 1636, but it recieved a wide readership in manuscript form

he cited many religious authorities such as augustine, thomas aquinas and sant jerome

this woud be as if an absolute ddeespot being neither a physician nor an architect but kowing hiself fre to command, should undertake to adnkinister mediciens and erect buildings according tohis whim

to ban copernicus now that his doctrine is daily reinforced by many new observations and by the leaerned applying thesmelves to the reading of his boook, after this opoinion had been allowed and tolerated for those wmnay hears durin which it was less follwoed and less confirmed woudl seem in my dugement to be a contrravention of truth. and and attempt to hide and syupprress her the more as she revealed her self the more clearly and plainly

his theory of tides was that the earth's motion sloshed the water around

"he is passionately inovlved in in this fight of his and he does not see or sense what it involves with the result that he will be traipped uo and will get himself into trouble, tigether with anyine who supportes his views"

he saw the idea of lunar influence as occultic and astrological

cesi pondered if copernicus could have published his book after the council of trent

the council of trent prohibited interpretation of the scirpture contrary to the consensus of holy fathers, on opposition to the protestant

galileo was still in rome when the eict was handed to him in feb 1616 when his injunction was voted on

thios edict applied not only to galileo but to copernicus, whose boosk was finaly placed on the lsit of banned books

and made known to him the maluice of my persecutior and some of theri calumnies against me. he answered hthat he was well aware of my uprightness and sinxcerity of mind aand when I gav eividence of being still somewhat anxious about the future owing to my fear of being pursued with implacable ahte by my enemeies, he consold me and said that i might put away all care, because I was held in so much esteem both by himself and by the whole congregation of cardinals that they woudl not lightl lend their ears tto calumnous reports.

galileo appealed to ebllormino for redress and recieved the endorsement: a proclamation that galileo had not been punished for any crime

galileo believed co,ets to be illusions created by the sun reflecting off high altitutde vapours, akin to rainbows.

comets had no substance. Even jesuits at th s point were agreeing with tycho. while galileo had agreed with tycho on the nova, he never accepted this

discourse on comets seemed to directly attack the jesuits first scheiner than grassi

the asayer was a joke at the expense of libra astronomica

"if their opinions and ther cvoices have hte power to call into exiswtence the things they have considered an named why then I beg them to do me the facvour of consieerd and naming gold a lot fo the old hardware that I have about my hyosue"

"sarsi has but to spit upon the gorund and undoubteldy he will see the appearance of a natural star when he looks at his sipplttle for the poitn upwards towards which the suns'; rays are reflected

marina gamba died in febraury 1619

galileo overrated

area of the cycloid weighing it with paper, trial and error, got it wrong. Not exactly three (it is exactly three)

"experiments are deceitful"

contemporaries like Descartes solved it as mathematicians using reasoning and proof

"he is eloquent in refuting aristotle, but that is not hard"

"I see nothing in his books to make me envious"

"Less knowledgeable than if they had obstained from study" Descartes on Aristotle

"aristotle's individual words are worshipped as if they were the Delphic oracle" Tycho Brahe

Universal among mathematicians

"if perchance there are certain idle talkers wholly ignorant of mathematics that were to attack my work theey worry me so little that I shall scorn their judgment. They hold the same possistion among philosophers that drones hold among bees." copernicus de revolutionibus

"whoever is too strupid to understand astromical science, I advise that he mind his own business and scratch in his dirt patch". astronomia nova

archimedes as not an aristotelian

much of the greek corpus has been lost

strato wrote a treatise on falling bodies

stone dropped from various heights make craters of different depths, showing that objects accelerate as they fall

hipparchus also wrote a treatise of falling bodies that contradicted aristotle. weight depended on distance to the centre of the earth- tunnel through the centre what would happen?

velocity is proportional to time and distance is proportional to time squared

moon fall test- galileo believed that the moon had an atmosphere

Philoponus—an unoriginal commentator—had clearly and explicitly rejected Aristotle’s law of fall by precisely such an experiment more than a thousand years before Galileo.

Simon Stevin, for example, in the Netherlands, certainly did, and published his results years before Galileo made his experiment,

Mersenne was doing the same thing. He was dropping weights out out Parisian chamber windows before he ever heard of Galileo.

“The custom of modern philosophers is always to believe and never to test that which they find written in good authors, especially Aristotle. [But it would be] both safer and more delightful to descend to experience in some cases, as for example in the motion of heavy bodies, in which both Aristotle and all other philosophers without ever doubting the fact, have believed and affirmed that according to how much a body is more heavy, by so much more [speed] will it descend, the test of which shows it not to be true.”

Benedetto Varchi 1544

Galileo's idea that a smaller weight added to a larger would retard the speed is not a refutation of aristotle

only a passing reference in aristotle.

lucretius law of fall

thomas harriot isaac bateman

galileo does not prove parabolic motion of projectiles

the law of inertia fails at other angles?

Cavalieri published a correct theory of parabolic motion before galileo

galileo only formulated a resticted law of inertia

a body’s indifference to motion or to rest and its continuance in the state it is once given. This idea is, to the best of my knowledge, original with Galileo.”

You could very well argue that that’s not really inertia at all because it doesn’t involve the straightness of the direction of the motion, nor does it explicitly say that the motion keeps going at a perpetual uniform speed. It only focusses on indifference of motion versus rest and preservation of the state of motion.

“No one could say why a thing once set in motion should stop anywhere; for why should it stop here rather than there? So that a thing will either be at rest or must be moved ad infinitum, unless something more powerful get in its way.” aristotle

Since he only trusted the horizontal case, Galileo tried to analyse other trajectories in terms of this case. To this end he assumed, without justification, that a parabola traced by an object rolling off a table would also be the parabola of an object fired back up again in the same direction. In other words, “he takes the converse of his proposition without proving or explaining it.” That judgement is in fact a quote from Descartes, a mathematically competent reader who immediately spotted this blatant flaw in Galileo’s book.

Here’s another interesting point that Descartes makes: Galileo “seems to have written [this theory] only to explain the force of cannon shots fired at different elevations.”

When teaching basic astronomy at Padua, Galileo explained to his students that Copernicus was undoubtedly wrong about the earth’s motion. The earth doesn’t move, Galileo explained. Because, if the earth moved, a rock dropped from a tower would strike the ground not at its foot but some distance away, since the earth would have moved during the fall. In support of this claim, “Galileo observed that a rock let go from the top of a mast of a moving ship hits the deck in the stern.” This had indeed been reported as an experimental fact by people who actually carried it out.

In his later works Galileo of course affirms the opposite of what he said in those lectures: the rock will fall the same way relative to the ship regardless of whether the ship is standing still or travelling with a constant velocity. He gives a very vivid and elaborate description of this principle. I’ll quote in it full, it’s a long quote but it’s quite fun:

“Shut yourself up with some friend in the main cabin below decks on some large ship, and have with you there some flies, butterflies, and other small flying animals. Have a large bowl of water with some fish in it; hang up a bottle that empties drop by drop into a wide vessel beneath it. With the ship standing still, observe carefully how the little animals fly with equal speed to all sides of the cabin. The fish swim indifferently in all directions; the drops fall into the vessel beneath; and, in throwing something to your friend, you need throw it no more strongly in one direction than another, the distances being equal; jumping with your feet together, you pass equal spaces in every direction. When you have observed all these things carefully (though doubtless when the ship is standing still everything must happen in this way), have the ship proceed with any speed you like, so long as the motion is uniform and not fluctuating this way and that. You will discover not the least change in all the effects named, nor could you tell from any of them whether the ship was moving or standing still. In jumping, you will pass on the floor the same spaces as before, nor will you make larger jumps toward the stern than toward the prow even though the ship is moving quite rapidly, despite the fact that during the time that you are in the air the floor under you will be going in a direction opposite to your jump. In throwing something to your companion, you will need no more force to get it to him whether he is in the direction of the bow or the stern, with yourself situated opposite. The droplets will fall as before into the vessel beneath without dropping toward the stern, although while the drops are in the air the ship runs many spans. The fish in their water will swim toward the front of their bowl with no more effort than toward the back, and will go with equal ease to bait placed anywhere around the edges of the bowl. Finally the butterflies and flies will continue their flights indifferently toward every side, nor will it ever happen that they are concentrated toward the stern, as if tired out from keeping up with the course of the ship, from which they will have been separated during long intervals by keeping themselves in the air. And if smoke is made by burning some incense, it will be seen going up in the form of a little cloud, remaining still and moving no more toward one side than the other.”

galileo decried grassi as appealing to authority over experimentation

galileo was a poor mathemtatician and so could not follow tycho and kepler's calculations

mathematical accounts of comets are inconsitant- parallax of comets varies

"comets ahve no other origin than that a part oof the vapor laden air is unusually rarified rarified and struck by the sun"

galileo if anyone is skilled to contribute to gemetrical demonstrations and he knows what a difference there is between and the indolence common to many others in this most diffcult of all activities. therefore it is incredible that he would critixcise as false the observations of all mathematicians in such a way that even those of tycho would be included. Kepler

how many times would the world have to be expanded to make room for an entire revolution of a comet when one 400th part of its orbti takes up half of our universe?

“When a ship floats over a tranquil sea, all the things outside seem to the voyagers to be moving in a movement which is an image of their own, and they think they themselves and all the things with them are at rest. So it can easily happen in the case of the movement of the Earth that the whole world should be believed to be moving in a circle. Then what would we say about the clouds and the other things floating in the air or falling or rising up, except that not only the Earth is moved in this way but also no small part of the air [is moved along with it]?”

galileon relativity, constant speed cannot be destinguished from rest

galileo failed to calculate g to within a factor of two

Mersenne: “I doubt whether Mr Galileo has performed the experiment on free fall on a plane, since … the intervals of time he gives often contradict experiment.”

Actually there is nothing “difficult” about it. At least not to mathematically competent people. Mersenne immediately ran the calculations and found that Galileo must have messed his up, because his scheme doesn’t work. There is no such point from which the planets can fall and obtain their respective speeds. Later Newton made the same observation. Galileo’s precious idea is so much nonsense, which evidently must have been based on an elementary mathematical error in calculation.

Galileo, alas, gets all of this horribly wrong. Even though we are supposed to celebrate Galileo as the discoverer of the law of fall, it is apparently too much to ask that he work out this very basic application of it. As we noted, Galileo did not offer a serious estimate for the constant of gravitational acceleration g, unlike his contemporaries who were proper scientists. Therefore he did not have the quantitative foundations to carry out the above analysis, which high school students today can do in five minutes.

Worse yet, Galileo maintains that no such analysis is needed in the first place, because he can “prove” that the rock will never be thrown off regardless of the rotational velocity. “There is no danger,” Galileo assures us, “however fast the whirling and however slow the downward motion, that the feather (or even something lighter) will begin to rise up. For the tendency downward always exceeds the speed of projection.” Galileo even offers us “a geometrical demonstration to prove the impossibility of extrusion by terrestrial whirling.” Those are quotes from his big treatise on this.

Galileo’s claim to fame as a “mathematiser of nature” is certainly done no favours by this episode. He doesn’t know how to quantify his own law of fall, and doesn’t understand basic implications of it. His physical intuition is categorically wrong on a qualitative level, and worse than that of the ancients he is trying to refute (whose stance was quite reasonable and would be accurate if the earth was spinning faster). Galileo even offers a completely wrongheaded geometrical “proof” that the ancients’ conception is impossible, even though so-called “Galilean” physics leads to the opposite conclusion in an elementary way.

Galileo’s error in effect amounts to assuming that speed in free fall is proportional to distance rather than time. This is a crucial distinction in “Galileo’s” law of fall, which Galileo and others at times got wrong. By messing up this very point in his mature work, Galileo is undermining his claim to being the rightful father of the correct law of fall.

Another example. Galileo tried to compute how long it would take for the moon to fall to the earth, if it was robbed of its orbital speed. “Making the computation exactly,” according to himself, he finds the answer: 3 hours, 22 minutes, and 4 seconds. This is way off the mark because Galileo assumes that his law of fall (that is, constant gravitational acceleration) extends all the way to the moon, which of course it does not. Ironically, Galileo’s purpose with this calculation was to refute the claim of another scholar that the fall would take about six days, which is a much better value: in fact it would take the moon almost five days to fall to the earth. That’s Galileo, the great hero of quantitative science, in action for you: bombastically claiming to refute others with his “exact calculations,” only to make fundamental mistakes and err orders of magnitude worse than his opponents did.

think that … the falling body follows any other line but one such as this. … I do not believe that there is any other way in which these things can happen. I sincerely wish that all proofs by philosophers had half the probability of this one.”

This is inconsistent with Galileo’s own law of fall. Once again he doesn’t understand basic implications of his own law. Mersenne readily spotted Galileo’s error. And Fermat observed that the path should be a spiral, not a semi-circle

galileo's claim that a fine chain ssupended from two hooks inline wiht one another creates a parabola was disproven by Christiaan huygens when he was just 17 years old

when experimentation showed that it didn't fit, he explained it away with unforseen factors

galileo believed that tides were caused by the motion of hhe earth

the lunar theory of the tides is found in ancient greek sources

he considered the idea occult; a tie to the moon's occultic association with water

"Why should you reject this cause and take refuge in miracles?"

This is actually not a bad argument

after all, kepler could not explain what "magnetism" in the moon led to the tides, and supposing it existed was to invoke magic

"Mixture of the annual and diurnal motions causes the unevenness of motion in the parts of the terrestrial globe. … Upon these two motions being mixed together there results in the parts of the globe this uneven motion, now accelerated and now retarded by the additions and subtractions of the diurnal rotation upon the annual revolution.”

high and low tides occur six hours apart, two high and two low 24 hours period. Galileo's theory suggests that tides should be 12 hours apart

these must depend on the size depth and shape of local sea basins

tides 12 hours apart are daily observed in lisbon

The inclination of the earth’s axis implies that the effects that Galileo describes should be strongest in summer and winter. Unfortunately for Galileo’s theory, the reverse is the case. Actually the tides are most extreme in spring and fall because they receive the maximum effects of the sun’s gravitational pull.

violates galiean relativity; it would be onservable on a ship

“They draw attention to a difficulty raised by several members about the proposition you make that the tides are caused by the unevenness of the motion of the different parts of the earth. They admit that these parts move with greater speed when they [go] along [with] the annual motion than when they move in the opposite direction. But this acceleration is only relative to the annual motion; relative to the body of the earth as well as to the water, the parts always move with the same speed. They say, therefore, that it is hard to understand how the parts of the earth, which always move in the same way relative to themselves and the water, can impress varying motions to the water.”

opponents of ptolemy appear to have had an early version of inertia or relativity of motion

If galileo had died in `1609, as he very well could have, he would have been forogtten

simon marius disocvered the moons of jupiter one day after galileo

messenger was published 10 days after the last observation

“I do not wish to show the proper method of making them to anyone”; rather “I hope to win some fame.” Those are Galileo’s own words. His competitors quickly realised that, as one contemporary says, “we must resign ourselves to obtaining the invention without [Galileo’s] help.” Still six years after his booklet of discoveries, people who thought science should be a shared and egalitarian enterprise were rightly upset by Galileo’s selfish quest for personal glory. One writes as follow to Galileo: “How long will you keep us on the tenterhooks? You promised in your Sidereal Message to let us know how to make a telescope so that we could see all the things that are invisible to the naked eye, and you haven’t done it to the present day.”

But if Galileo genuinely wanted them to turn to nature he could have shared his techniques for telescope construction. In truth it served his own interests very well that these people were left with no choice but “comparing texts” while he claimed the novelties of the heavens for himself.

his lectures were unoriginal, his mathematical lectures were euclidian geometry, astronomy for medical students

he cast horoscopes for his own family and friends

“I desire that in addition to the title of mathematician His Highness will annex that of philosopher; for I may claim to have studied more years in philosophy than months in pure mathematics.”

why was the boundary of the moon smooth whiole the terminator craggy?

Another indication that many were silently receptive to Copernicanism is the fact that most of the leading astronomers of the 16th century owned Copernicus’s book, and many of them wrote extensive notes in the margins, as was the habit at the time.

Galileo’s dilettantism is so blatant and shameless that Gingerich could hardly believe his eyes: “I had long supposed that Galileo was not the sort of astronomer who would have read Copernicus’ book to the very end. … Still, when I saw the copy in Florence, my reaction was one of scepticism that it was actually Galileo’s copy, since there were so few annotations in it. … This copy had no technical marginalia, in fact, no penned evidence that Galileo had actually read any substantial part of it. … Eventually, … I realized that my scepticism was unfounded and that it really was Galileo’s copy.” There is no need for surprise, of course. Galileo was a poor mathematician. He had neither the patience nor the ability to understand serious mathematical astronomy, let alone make any contribution to it.

Plutarch, a millennium and a half before Galileo, the suggestion that “the Moon is very uneven and rugged.”

Kepler also points out that this was also the opinion of his teacher Maestlin before him, who, according to Kepler, “proves by many inferences … that [the moon] also got many of the features of the terrestrial globe, such as continents, seas, mountains, and air, or what somehow corresponds to them.” That’s from the Mysterium Cosmographicum, 1596, long before the telescope.

In a later edition of this work, Kepler added the note that “Galileo has at last throughly confirmed this belief with the Belgian telescope,” thereby vindicating “the consensus of many philosophers on this point throughout the ages, who have dared to be wise above the common herd.” Indeed, Galileo himself says his observations are reason to “revive the old Pythagorean opinion that the moon is like another earth.”

for instance, he tries to “correct” Marius regarding the inclination of the orbits of the moon of Jupiter. Marius found that these orbits sit at an angle to the orbital plane of Jupiter itself. Galileo claimed, no no, they are actually perfectly parallel to Jupiter’s own orbit. But Galileo is wrong, and his opponent is right.

thomas harriot obsereved the sun through a telescope without galileo, but nurned his eye

who would dare call the sun false scheiner Galileo erroneously claimed—supposedly based on “a great number of most diligent observations of this particular”—that all sunspots had the same orbital period, regardless of latitude. In fact, sunspots near the sun’s equator orbit quicker than those near the poles—a difference of a few days. Galileo was corrected by Scheiner about this.

The sun does not have the equator conveniently marked on its surface, but not far from it. The sun is spinning rather quickly. It makes a full turn in less than a month. As it spins, a point on its surface traces out an equatorial or at least latitude circle. So by tracking the paths of sunspots over the course of a few weeks, we in effect see equatorial and other latitude circles being marked on the surface of the sun.

So the shapes of those paths traced by sunspots show that we are indeed looking at the sun from alternating vantage points. But this does not necessarily mean that we are moving around the sun. The same phenomena could be accounted for from a geostatic or Ptolemaic point of view by saying that the sun is so to speak wobbling. It is showing us different sides of itself in the course of a year, not because we are moving around it but because it is turning different parts of itself in our direction.

orbit, rotation and precession implausible on the sun- galileo

galileo's argument disproves the copernican explanation for precession

“If the terrestrial globe should encounter an obstacle such as to resist completely all its whirling motion and stop it, I believe that at such a time not only beasts, buildings, and cities would be upset, but mountains, lakes, and seas, if indeed the globe itself did not fall apart. This agrees with the effect which is seen every day in a boat travelling briskly which runs aground or strikes some obstacle; everyone aboard, being caught unawares, tumbles and falls suddenly toward the front of the boat.” dialogue concerning the two world systems

nov 13 1610 galilo claims he has no new discoveries to report

dec 5 1610 Castelli writes to galileo explaining how the phases of venus could support heliocentrism

dec 11 galileo announces the phases of venus (anagram)

dec 30 galileo describes the phases of venus observed for three months

nothing new about or around the planets?

postal time?

could galileo have correctly described the precise nin-linear timing of the various phases without observing them?

a sphere half painted blak and white

archimedes could not have had his matheamtics coincide with physics without experimentation.

motion

galileo beleived that teh spreading of a lightning flash meant thae speed of light had to be relatively slow

velocity along an incline is retarded; along a decline increased, so on a flat planne must be perpetual

works

Two new sciences adheres to the abhorrence of a vacuum

Galileo still nelieved that straight motion was impossible, as it is infinite, and there cannot be motion without an endpoint.

firend in paris alerted him

received professorship for life

milky way, nebulous stars, the innumerable multitude of the fixed stars, and four planets never before seen

"the moon certainly does not possess a smooth and polished surface but one rough and uneven, and, just like the face of the earth itself, is everywhere full of vast protruberances, deep chasms, and sinuousities. "

"I distinguish two parts in it, which I call respectively the nrigher and the darker. The lighter part seems to surround and pervade the whole hemisphere, but the darker part, like a sort of cloud, discolours the moon's surface and makes it appear covered in spots."

great or ancient spots, vs smaller spots, thickly scattered

"[the Moon] is full of inequalities; uneven, full of hollows and protuberences, just like the surface of the Earth itself."

the terminator is uneven

He noted that craters (little spots) are brighter on the side farther from the sun, as mountains and valleys are on Earth

also, bright points are gradually illuminated by the sun, indicating the peaks of mountains

the ancient spots are even and uniform "revive the old opinion of the pythagoreans" that they represent seas and the bright areas land

large crater identification uncertain, though possinly Tycho.

he speculates that the reason we see no maria on the side is becaiuse the atmosphere is too thick

he saw that p[lanets, when magnified, resplved into disks

the six sisters of the pleidies became 36 under his lens

"the milky way consists entirely of stars in countless numbers and various magnitudes. By the aid of a telescope one may behold this in a manner which so distinctly appeals to the senses that all disputes whcih have tormented philosophers through so many ages are exploded at once by the irrefragible evidnece of our eyes, "

heights on the moon can exceed four italian miles (22 thousand feet). Actually, the highest mountain on the moon is just 18 thousand feet

"the earth, with fair and grateful exchange, [ays back to the moon an illumination like that which it receives from the moon nearly the whole time during the darkest gloom of night"

Letter to Christina punlished in 1615

identified nebulae as star clusters, including the beehive cluster (Praesipe)

he deduced that the moons orbited in unequal circles and inadvertantly caught up with kepler when he noticed that the closer moons orbited more quickly

He noted that sirius was brighter than the brightest planets (this isn't actually true, but it is brighter tha n saturn) and that the planets## brilliancy decreased with distance, and thus concluded that while planets shine by reflected sunlight, the stars have their own internal light

"the novelty of those things as well as some condequences which followed from them in contradiction to the physical notions commonly held among academic philosophers stirred up against me no small numnber of professors as if I had placed these things in the sky with my own hands in order to upset nature and overturn the sciences. They seemed to forget that the increase of known truths stimulates the investigation, establishment and growth of the arts, not its dimunition or destruction"

he asserts his belief in heliocentrism and argues that his new discoveries agree with it

mistrusting their defense so long as they confine themselves to philosophy, these men have resolved to fabricate a shield for their fantasies out of a mantle of pretend religion and the authority of the bible. These they apply with little judgment to the refutation of arguments they do not understand and have not even listened to,

the small number of the intelligent woud be unable to repress the furious torrent of those men, who would find so many more followers in that the gaining the reputation as wise men without pains or study is far more grateful to human nature than consuming ourselves with the restless contemplations of the most painful arts

demonstrated conclusions touching the things of nature and of the heavens cannot be changed with the same facility as the opinions touching what is lawful or not in a contract, bargain or bill of exchange.

before a physical proposition be condemned, it is necessar to show that it is not necessarily demonstrated, and this is to be done not by them who hold it to ne true, but by those who o hold it false.

of natural propositions, some ther eare of all human science and discourse can furnish us only with some plausible opinion and probable conjecture, rather than with any certain or demonstrative knowledge. As for example, whether the stars be animated. Others there are of which we have, or may confindently believe that we may have, by experiments, long observations and necessary demonstrations, an undubitable assurance. As for instance whether the earth and heavens move or not. Whether the heavens are spherical or otherwise. If human reasoning cannot reach them, and thus there is no science to be had of them but only opinion or belief we ought fully and abolsutely to comply with th e mere verbal sense of the scripture.

as to the other sort, two truths can never contradict each other

he cites st augustine re the sphericity of heaven vs the bible describing it as a hide; that when reason and evidence challenge scripture, cripture should be reinterpreted.

"It is not worthwhile to attempt to remove them from their reasons, they being incapable of the contrary reasons that depend upon too exquisite observations and too subtle demonstrations, grounded upon abstaractions which for the comprehending of them, require too strong an imagination."

the bible does not condemn the contrary opinion

a statement cannot be both true and heretical

a statement about which we are not certain should not be considered heretical if we are not certain of its truth, unless it can be proven false.

Io europa ganymede periods calculated to the half hour, callisto to within two hours

realised that sunspots were created and destroyed on the sun's face and so could not be orbiting planets

SIMP. I do not think that anyone believes fables when he knows them to be such; and as to the opinions about the cause of the tides (which are numerous), since I know that there is only one true and primary cause for one effect, I understand perfectly that at most one can be true, and all the rest must be false and fabulous. Perhaps the true one is not even among those which have been produced up to date. I rather believe this to be so, since it would be remarkable if the true cause should shed so little light as not to show through the darkness of so many false ones. But I must say, with that frankness which is permitted here among ourselves, that to introduce the motion of the earth and make it the cause of the tides seems to me thus far to be a concept no less fictitious than all the rest I have heard. If no reasons more agreeable to natural phenomena were presented to me, I should pass on unhesitatingly to the belief that the tide is a supernatural effect, and accordingly miraculous and inscrutable to the human mind -- as are so many others which depend directly upon the omnipotent hand of God.

cambridge

Galileo had to build an audience for scientific work, while Newton could assume such an audience was already in pplace "Galileo crated a place for scinece in intellectual life"

age of discovery zoologicql qne botanical gardens

rise of printing, individuaql learning

ga;i;eo made his money in padua teaching busness kids practical mathematics

upheval, decline of traditiional institution, banditry, piracy war, technological innovation loss of faith in the future

1611; COLLEGIO ROMANO, THE sicnetific authority of the church, endorsed all of galileo's discoveries

"this may be the last time in history whn that was true"

dialogue; three men four days two named after dead friends of galileo day one: early forms of inertia

day two diurnal motion of ht e tearth relativity of observed motion

urban VII god could have chosen to make the tides move in any way he chose, and it is and our hujman minds cannot pretend to a knowledge and certainty about nature that would limit and restrict the divine power and wisdom"

galileo has simoplicio say this

"vehemently suspected of heresey"

dialogo was prohibited

galileo abjured

i galileo some of the slate viincenzo galilei of florence, seventy years of age abandon completely the false opinion that the sun is the ncetnre fo the world and does not move and that the earth is not the centroe odf the world and moves

1534 his daughter died

up until the early 1600s, galileo defended the ptolemaic system

textual scholarship would later determine that much of galileo's early writing was cribbed from the Jesuit collego romano

"more years in philosophy than months in pure mathematics"

benedetti mezzoni criticised aristotle for not using mathematics, galileo studied them

in a letter written to a friend on his deathbed he claimed that in matters of lkogic he had been an aristotelian all his life

galileo's texts are riddled with I/ He beleived in the strength of the individual to rise abocve hte herd, whether the masses or the peripatetics

Eagles are scarce, little seen and less heard. birds that fly in flocks fill the sky with shrieks wherever they settle, and befoul the earth beneath them. but if true philosophers are like eagles, the crows of fools who know nothign is infinite

on motion mistake in claimign the motive pwer of bodies as the difference in specific gravity between an object and teh medium in which it is immersed

galileo's mathemaics was geometrical not algebraic and relied on relationships (ratios) ot absolute qualtities

when he died galileo was dictating a commentary on euclid's definitions

galileo was the first to gather together the issues with inertia and deal with them in a single discussion

distance fallen is proportional to time squared 1604 no later

the distances fallen equal the odd numbers 1 3 5 7 9

if a descending body is deflected horizontally, it continues at linear speed

pierre gassendi confirmed galileo's work on inclined planes and dropped a stone from the mast of a moving ship

ga;ileo never saw gravity as an extrinsic force but as an intrinsic property of a body

all external impediments being removed a heavy body on a spherical surface concentric with the earth will be indifferent to rest or to movement toward any part of the hori9zon and will remain in the state in which it has once been placed

if it is true as ancient philosopehrs believed, that there is a single kind of matter in all bodies, and those bodies are heavier which enclose more particles of that matter in a narrower space, and also occupie narrower places such are those that are nearer the centre

jacopo mazzoni 1597, based a comment by aristotle, bneleved that that one could see two thirds of the cleestial vault from the top of a mountain, and tus if the earth were in motion, one could see two thirds of the celestial sphere. Galileo corrected him with trigonometry

galileo offered an 8x telescope to venisce, taking nobles up to a high tower to demonstarte it. his salary wwas ioncreased from 520 to 1000 florins

but then the senate heard tht the telescope was in use throughout europe, felt gypped and said that his salary would be delayed to the following year and that he would not be allowed to ask for another increase

galileo was peeved; he never claimed to have invented the telescope and his was better than any in circulation

still he would make abetter one

if venus orbited the sun, it would be full when farthest from earth and new when closest

french court beggged him to name a new planet after henryy IV but he couldn't find it

i have onserved that saturn is not a single star but three together which always touch each other they do not move in the least among themselvs and have the following shape the middle being much larger than the lateral ones

to the tuscan ambassador to prague

if we look at them with a telescope of weak magnifican the three stars do not apopear very distrinctly the saturn seems elongated like an olive but with a telscope that multiplies the surface over a thousand time 30x the three globes will be seen very distinctly and almost touching with only a thead fo dark space betwen them, a court ahs been fiound for jupiter and nhow for this old nam thwo attendants will hel him wal and never leave his side

to mark welser

what can be said fo so strange a metamorphsis were the two smaller stars consumed klike spots on the sun have they suddenly vanished and fled or has saturned devoured his won children I cannot resolve what to say in a change so strange, so new so unexpected

summmer solstice 1515 APPEARED LARGER "EARS" and then vanished again

wooton

galieo's papers were preserve by his last student, vincenzio vivianinephew, and then his nephew'snephew, who saw so little value in them that he attempted to selll them as scrap paper, thankfullyin 1750 a florentine intellectual named giovanni nelli noticed a galilean manuscript wrapping his mortadella.

the church had insisted that he be burioed without a funerary monument

viviani wanted to restore his reputation

no major discoveries after the age of 50

viviani portrayed galileo as a pious catholic who was hrrified at the publication of his work in protestant euriope. The evidence against this was suppressed

antonio favaro published the national editionj of galileos works between 1890 and 1909, brushed asaide any negative details

viviani frequenrlt edited or selevely chose materials to cast him as a better catholic

galileo had an early hobby making toy ships and windmills, a willingness to work with his hands at a time when manual laboyur was coinsidered demeaning

he pushed his aughters into a convent wanted to become a monk, and was surprised whenhis shsister chose marriage yet inhis will he disinherited anyone when tered a monastery or nunnery

his plan to make his son a doctor was tied tohis name galileo

vincenzo wrote his works the dialogue on ancient and modern music in italian

galileo said he was was a pythagorean, musixc, heliocentrism and the wrold as numbers

galileo was born, educated and initially employed in pisa, and pisans call hik il pisano, but galileo always insisted he was a nobil fiorentino a florentine gentleman, because his father was florentine-born

he described himself as flroentine in the university register

galileo was not well travelled. He never left his native italy and in his life saw pisa, florence, venice, rome and genoa

galileo was fine with this; he was deeply misanthropic, particularly towards ignorance, and saw little point in bothering to comprehend distant human beings

he wrote most of his books in tuscan, only the starry messenger was published in latin

he thougth that since ialians couldn't read his workds, they woud be forgotten, apparently not realisign that dutch protestants had been reading them too, or at least not caring

1581 at 17 sent to university

viviani first mentioend the swinging lamo story

galileo practised outward loyalty, inward exit

santorio santorio claimed to ahve invented the pulsilogium, and galileo never conststed it

and galileo did not mebntion pendulums in wis own writings until 20 years later

archimedes wanted like most greek thinkers, to establish an started from axioms

because galileo never gave up his love for archimedes, he never fully became a modern scientist

in his little balance,1587, galileo calls archimedes measuremetns too crude

weigh the ctown both in air and in water weights areasier to measure than volumes

byou could then work out how much heavier than water the gold silve rand the orwn were

he then went on to measyure the specific gravity *relative density( of various materials

seeing vs believing epicycles vs perfect circles aristotle vs anatomy

only one nerve leads to the heart

the sense are easily fooled

in 1640, galileo described himself to an opponent, fortunio leceti, as a good aristotelian he admired aristotles logic and emphasniss on experience but dki9agreed with al his science

"what we are engae in is the desruction fo the principal doctrines of the phiklosohy which is currently dominant, the dosctrrine of il maestro di color che sanno the master of those who know dantes name for aristotle (cesi)

galileo was poor enough to likely never ride on horseback, he travelled at his own expense on foot

1589, professor of mathematics at pisa

aristotle drew a sharp distinction between natural and forced movement

forced movemts *like a ball thrown up) tend to decellerate, natural movents lieka ball thrown down accellerate

arostotle believed that no two motions could occur simultaneously; if a ball is thrown, it gows first in a straight line, then down

impressed force left over in the ball

heavy things fell light things rose (lightness was a quality) no naturlal lateral motions . motions toward natual place of rest

aristotle the ehavier a thing is the faster it falls

giorgio coresio 1612 leaning tower claimed vindicated aristotle

viviani told the story of the tower

a manuscirpt in which galileo claims that the lighter object gains on the heavier, before beingn overtaken by it an experien he claimed to have repeated many times

1638 galileo argued in the new siciences a two weights dropped from a tower 1:100 weigt difference to ftwo inches (not necessarily pisa, thoght experiemtns?)

vincenzo renieri dropped a cannonball and a musketball from the tower of pisa and foudn that the difference of 6 inches

modern science ironically says the difference should have been much greater, as much as two metres, but it is possible that the early expeirments actually dropped the cannonball before the xuket ball

archimedes bodies float because they are less dense than water, there is no lightness, only varying degrees of heaviness

teh speed of an objets fall was proportional to the medium it was tavelling through and thus vacuum was impossible as the speed would be infinite

two wne poubnd weights tied to gether with a string would suddenly double their speed or would it remain the same?

latera galileo concluded that they would fall at the same speed

disagreee ment waws at the heart of intellectual life

the boundary for heavyness was earth#'s centre' the boundary for lightness was the sublunar sphere

1638 two new sciences two inches

wind resistance calculatins shuggest that the difference should be eight metres

svrmprvr it is the density of the material, not the eeight, that determines speed of fall#

lateral motion may be interminable

impetu8s 14th century it does ot disso[pate it continues uitil it encounters a fource that can slow it

uimpressed force naturally dissipates

galileo never published or finished on motion

he refused to drp the idea of impressed force and so failed to grasp the full implication of impetus theory they continue accelerating indefinjitely (already developed by middle ages)

giovanni battista benedetti came up witha similar theory of motion paolo sarpi and del monte likely told galileo explaining why he never published

galileo owed del monte his job at padua viviani claimed he had made an enemy wheihis shy his xontract wthree years was not reneeerf

padua was twice as big as pisa nd far more prestigious

benedettop castelli took his owl job

the dialogues were just polished accounts of his intellectual work in padua

we don't know when galileo was converted to copernicanism

cesi found kepler's argumetns convincing galileo ignored them

galileo must have heard of bruni, yet never mentions hm

he was compared to bruno constantly

he copied brinos dialogue form

galilo claimed to kepler in 1597 that he had been a copernican for a number of years

opn motion is geoctric as it has only one iof down

this period of his intellectual development is almost devoid of contemparray material

summer 1592 del monte and galileo conduct an experometnm using paint anda nearly vertical walll to track the path of a thrown ball

galileo asssumed a cetenary and a pararbola were the smae, but nmodern methematicians know they are not

aristotle assumed a pprojectiale woudl travel firs in a straight line, then fall traight toward the earth; the parabola duisproved that

cannonball paths were non-symmetrical likea fishhook

since all strauight motions are curlved because th earth is curved all motions are circular

erhaps he wanted top preserve the idea that accelleration was a temorary phase and hat contant fall would ensue

a symmetrical curve meant that two motions could be simultaneous

this was exactly the kind of curved path galileo envisioned to expalined the tower objection to copernicus

by two new ciiences gali9leo had come to the conclusion that all objects fall ta the smae speed in a vacuum

also the timing of th ti8des should be constant, but they vary

relativity of movment at a constant speed iot is indistinguishabkle form standing still

the moutnains of the moon can be seebn with the naked ey and galileo had a bpok in his possessiion which mentioned them,

he had foprmulated his ideas of relativity tides and

livias dowry reprensted thirty yuears salary at pisa, eight at padua 1601 livia marries, 11604 lawsuit for dowry

ga;o;eoos children born 16-- 1601 1606

sizty copies were printed one sold at christies for half a million dollars

after moving to florence, galileo was never in fninacial difficuklty again

galileo speculated that the isochronicity of the pendulum c0uld amke a great escapemetn though he never actually buiklt one, not understood how it could be affected by such things as heat nor how it could work at sea longitude

1605 christina asks galileo to teach her son how to use his compass

water wine experimetn, thoght impossible tried in 1973 galileo was right

the word experiment was first used by alhazens latin translator

galileo read alhazen for a course on optics he took in 1601

william gilbert uses the word experimetn in on the magnet in 1600

gilbnert experumented with round magnets called earthlets

cunning experiments and careful measurements

gilbert concludes that the earth itself has an axis and that it thyus rotates as magnets do

galileo ahd read gilbert by 1602

the speed at the bottom of a n inclined slope is the same as if it were dropped from the same height

an object takes the same amount of time to fall the length of a circle as it does to roll down an incline describing aby sector

galileo's hypothesis of the isochronisity of the pendulum is false since it rewuires the pendulum to alter its length slightly, as christiaan huygens proved in botyh theoryuy and practive

galilo claiming that experinments proved his hypothesis can be attributed to miscalculations of air resistance

aglileo had substituted falls for inclined plaines but showed that time uis proportional to distance squared

gilbet had shown that experiments could add new knowlege; galileo ahd shown experimetns could disprove ancient knowledge

galileo never discusses his experientn with planes on on the new3 sciences only mentioned in notes

galileo had conducted his experimetns prior to 1620 but did not publish until 1638

for galileo copernicus came first

new star of 1603 galileo gave lecturs about the arguetn from parallaz, philosoophers needed convincing as few had any uubndertanding of mathematics

galileo first heard of the telescope from paolo serpi

within the space of a few days, galileo reinvented it

galioleos first telescope maginifed ony three times, the dutch telescopes maginified six times

haloes of raimbos would have apapred around every object and it would have been blurred duyut to teh quality of the lenses

the number of possible combinations of lenses was limited. all he had todo was try them out

galileo was one of the few of his time to ask how a new twech could be immediately imopproved, and haow to make money from it

galileo soon had an 8x telescope and offered to the doge of venuce

was galiloe the inventer of a telesop[e or hjust a better telescope and was he quinquely qualified to create a beter telescope or could abnyone

galileos mother wrote to one of his manservants to try and get him to steal one of galileo's lenses and give it to his brother in law

she testified against him before the inquisition, he called her a whore and an ugly old cow

galileo never attended church and spent his time with cesarecremonini a known atheist

accusations were made that he claimed his horoscopes were perfectly reliable

when left his mothers house in her will, his brother micelangelo left after a few weeks claiming he couldn't bare to live in it, described his mother as dradful

what use was a star if no one could see it

harriot and lembo had already observed the irregularity of the moon's surface

nuncius can refer to either a messenger or to the message he carries

in italian he referred to it as avviso sidero starry news in italian

the title has always been ambiguous- galileo explained it by sying that some people are so set in their beliefs that they would only accept new discoveries if the stars themselves came down to explain it to tehm

the book was more similar to a travellers report than a philosophy text and made no reference to any other books. galileo belkieved that what he had found was so uttely new that no one else opinion was relevant

the illustrations had to be by him; no one else had a telescope as good

earthshine was a powrful argfuiemtn that the earth and the moon were of one nature galileo

of course earthshine could be seen with the naked eye

earth is exlucuded from the dance of the stars

"in venice ghe had security for li8fe in florence only for a princes life

losovico delle colombe carried out anexpperimmetn with ebony chip and ebony ball; the chip floated the ball sank. Rather than show his experimetn to galileo, he repated it in town squares and clainmed louddly that he had defeated him

sep 1511 cosimo held dinner with cardinal barberini florentine took galileos side in the debaate

galileo was a master rhetorician, he could iout argue anyone, but argument was ephemeral. If he wanted to make a case, it ahd to be in writing

discourse on floating bodies may 1612

galileo argued that the chip was supported by air, today we'd say surface tension

causes checked by elimiating perameters in experiments, gave up astrology, defended as late as 1611

venice was a place for non-conformists and a long enemy of rome that had expelled the jesuits and made friends with protestant nations. Galileo returned to florence because he wanted to be accepted in rome.

jesuit tenstion thomas aquinas vs new science

a visit to bologna had produced a null in observations of the moons of jupiter even cosimo began to doubt

he had not shown the moons to anyone prior to publishing

galiloe gave his telesopes to princes and cardinals, who were not qualified to tell if jupiter had moons

his best option woudl have been to give one to the Emperor who whould have passed it on to kepel, but he darent leta proetsant confirm his results

santini telescopes to clavius, clavius confirmed the satellites

galileom, who had become ill with depression, jumoped out of bed upon receiving claviuss letter

galileo was the sixth member of the lyncean academy

ptolemy full to half (away) half to crescent Between venus sun#

harriot never published anything

galileo clock univeral jupiters moons not possible on a b0at?

galileo had never seen the open ocan jsut the medeiterranean

aristotle deined life after death and believed the universe was eternal he had not ime for miricles

cesi was asnti aristotelian

his attempt to claim that sunsopots disprove aristotle on the mutabolioty of the heavens and were compatable with scripture was struck out by censors as a matter for thelogians

1612, other than missine neptune galileo had made all the great discoveries he would ever make

galileo argued that he was moved by religious devotion while his opponets were merely simulating piety

there is no evidnece of religious devotion at any point earlier in his life

one heresy galileo was deffintely guilty of was atomism and belief in a vacuum

galileo never asked anyone to pray for him until he lost his sight

in none of galileos letters are there any sponanious expressions of piety

we know that he wrote a treatise naturalisign teh miracles of the old testament

he wrote once about the complexisty of separating providence from nature, and that providence only operates though general laws- heretical

in janmury 1615, ballarmine told cesi that he thought copernicanism was heretical

"tolerate giving scripture scripture a meaning contrary to the holy fathers and to all the greek and latin commentators" council of trent

ballarmine copernicus = newton in high school instead of einstein

while in rome, galileo woudl engage in outdoor intellectual bear baiting, audiences admired his audacity but remained unconvinced by his arguments.

there is no evidence that the letter was ever sent to christina

an observer in rome: he gets fired up with his own opinoons he becoems extremenyl passionate ain hsi commitment tto them and he showes klittle strength adn pprudence in knowing when tog et control fo them, so that being here in rome, especiallas thign asre at the moment, sis very dangerus for him eh will oput himself in harms waym, and with him all thsoe who give him there supprt

galileo visited rome 6 times

1587 to meet clavius

1611 to demonstrate the telescope#

in 1615 16 to defend copernicanism 6 months

1624 to celebrate the election of barbini as pope

1630 to prppare for the publication of the dialogue

1633 for the trial

galileo was a terrible courtier

the dialogue cntains a claim of priority over Scheiner re sunsopots

viviani did a very good job establishing the ideea that Galieo was a good catholic

underground fire 164 lava under th earth, no place for hell

why wasnt the earth baking

galileo's wrotomgs were not pious and the few that were expressed a highly individual idiosyncratic belief in anima mundi

benedetto castelli june 1639 heard news that galiloe had given his soul to christ (after 35 years of friendship)

galileos idea of eternal motion is compatible with an eternal universe zand thus the absence of a crator

urban decreed that no one was to even speak to galileo of copernioanism on pain of damnation

galileo questioned many literal interpretations of scripture (the idea that the universe was created for us is fallacious, since without a universe we would not be here

Galileo's beliefs were characteristic of deism

physics became exxperimental under mersenne?

deciples like trorricelli created thje first artificial vacuum

weilliam harvey weas the fisst person to see a new theory triumph in his lifetime

galileo argued in the letter tochristina that scientists should always hae the right toqwuestion authority

Summer 1611: buoyancy debate (density vs shape) with aristotelians

greeks and florentines, iow two peeoples who had never seen an iceberg

Lodovico delle collombe, strict aritstotelian, prove galileo wrong

he suspected (possibly rightly) that galileo had been behind a pamphlet on Kepler's supernova that had argued against him

ebony chip ebony ball on water, chip floated, ball sank

colombe stood galileo up on a debate of the experiment, and istead proclaimed in town squares that he had defeated him.

September 1611: issue debated between grand duke cosimo, cardinal maffeo barberini took galileo's side, ferdinandop gonzaga took aristotles

cosimo suggested that, rather than sniping, gal;lileo should put his argument in writing, he did, and expandrd it

academic debates conducted in the public square degenerate into shouting matches, good sense prevails in the study

publ;ished in two editions in may and december 1612, discourse on floating bodies

He was able to show that it was not the shape of an object that allowed it to float (he had done the smae with a needle)

Not a single professor at any university ever supported galioleo on any topic.

Aristotle was still being taught in Newton's lifetime

the Jesuits, who were at the core of the new science, initially supported galileo, but they also had to supoprot thomas aquinas and reject innovation.

By 1632, the jesuits had turned against galileo, but individual jesuitrs still suported him

surface tension and the hydrogen bond would not be dicovered for 300 years

galileo may have been the first to observe sunspots through a tlescope, ut david frabricius was the first to publish, and christopher scheiner the second (1611, 1612)

July of 1610 spring of 1611, galileo is recorded as having shown sunspots to several people

scheiner was an aristotelian and so rationalised the sunspots accordingly

numerous objects orbiting the sun at a low level

in his response to scheiner, in on floating bodies, galileo made no mention of him, a bit of a slap

he claiemd that it made no difference if the spots were on or above the sun

Benedetto castelli had discverd that you could project the sun ona piece of paper instead of looking at it through a telescope, which left you temporarily blinded

using this techniwue galileo could make precise and exact measurements of the sopts movements.

12 May 1611 the sponts move on the sun, not above it

as tehy approached or advanced from the margin the spots became narrower, closer together, and slwoer. this was foreshortening.

such foreshortening would be far more rapid and delayed if the sunspots were moving above the sun

in on floating bodies, he also announced tht he had added a grid ruler, a crude micrometer, to his telescope, allowing him to accurately measure the angular distances of jupiter's moons

eclipses of jupiter occur at the same time for any observer on earth, and thus act as a universal clock. galikleo hadnt cinsidered how difficult making such observations ona ship on the open ocean would be

galileo made entreaties to both the spanish and duitch gpvernments but the spanish werent interested and the dutch, somewhat ironically, were uable to locate a good enoyugh telescope.

Mother

november 1609: giouliana wrote a letter to one of gallieo's domestic servants, alessandro piersanti

she has heard nothing from him for severla weeks and reassurs him tht his letters to her will not be interscepted.

she ask for a bolt of cloth from the weavers, but demands that no one in galileo's houshold gets wind of it

she has taken virginia, galileo's eldest daughter, away from the influence of her parents

she expects at least a page on the celebrations accompanying her departure

three days later she writes again,. demanding to know everything going on in galileo's household, and agaion declarign that marina gam,ba should not get her hands on her fabric

she complains that she has been lied to, perhaps to get her out of the hosue

she also demands that the objectives of galileo's telescope be smuggled out and sent to his brother in law benedetto landuci, with whom irginia is now living

one og galileo's earliest confrontations with the inquisition came at his mother's prompting, pior to 1604, in which she had given evidence against him a,d he had sworn at ehr and called her an ugly old cow.

""october 1619: mother eight I am more than a lttle astonished to hear that our mother is just as dreadful as efever.But given her physical decline, tshe won[t be with us mucgh longer, so that there will be an end to all these conflicts"

wootton speculates that the reason we know so little of galileo's oprviate feelings is that galileo never recorded them, for fear his mother might use them against him. ____ Aristotle was not a Christian- Christianity didn't exist when Aristotle taught. He denied the immortality of the soul, believed in an eternal universe that had never been created, and didn't mention miacles

Galileo initially (1611-12) saught to form an alliance with the Jesuits against Aristotelians

Aristotle claimed, that the heavens were immutible, but Scripture certainly didn't

In decembver of 1612, galileo recorded the planet neptune, but failed to notice it-symbolic?

12 December 1613 benedtto castelli had breakfast with the grand duchess and duke and her mother, on a visit to pisa

Cosmo boscaglia an aristotelian philosopher, was present.

boscaglia congratulated galileo on his telescopic discoveries, but argued that a moving earth was contary to scripture.

Costelli finished his meal and left, but was ordered back by a porter.

the group had agathered ofr a discussion, with boscaclia and christina arguing that copernicus was contrary to scriptuure, and costelli arguing that it was not.

21 december 1614 a dominican friar tomasso caccini, quoted joshua's causing the sun to stand stil and, punning on galuileo'a name, said, "men of galileewhy do you stand looking up at the sky

galileos letter in response to costellis account was soon in irculation, and eventually ended up in teh hands of the Inquisition in rome.

galileo wrote a response whcih via ympathetic channels, arrived at the vatican's head theologian, cardinal bellarmino

galileo's wording had said that teh bible perverts (or obscure) doctrines of the christian faith. Thankfully the inquisition considered the wording unfortunate, but the arguments unexceptionable

Many statements in the bible are not literally true, such as god having hands, but are written to be unsderstandable to a hhuman audience

teh book of nature is not written to be understood by us, so investigations of nature must take priotrity over the words of the bible

but according t christianity, nature can be adapted to communicate with us- it's called a miracle

galileo: copernicus had never been declared a heretic and was a pious catholic.

galileo insisted that he was motivated by religious zeal, despite not showing any such zeal at any previosu point in his life, galileo only made expressions of piety when charged with impiety

Caccini claimed that "galileisti" had claimed that god was substance and an accident, that the miracles performed by saits were not real, and beklief in atomism and the vacuum

galileo's dauughter amrie cel;este gave him holyu water as a cureall and paid for masses performed for him

castelli is a scientist and an atomist and acopernicanm, bnut also a monkl who believes in the healing power of prayer

galieo never prays to saints, paus inmduulgences or asks other to pray for him \9until he goes blind)

galileo was a deist of sorts, he believed in the divine architect but coudl not conceeede a god that would interfere with his own creation

gods providence lay in general laws, not on arbirtrary interventions, this wa heretical, galileo danced around it in writing

caccini: galileo had avowed copernicanism in his litters on sunspots

24th february 1615, the inquisition condemed tow protopsitioons, that the sun does not move, which theyu hled to be "foolish and absurd in philosophy and formallly heretical since it explixcityly contradicts in many places the sense of holy scripture, accordign to the literla meaning of the words and accoding to the common interpretation and understanding of the holy fathers and th doctors of theology,

that theaearth moves was "at least as erroneous in faith"

1615: a carmelite friar, paolo foscarini had written a defense of copernicus arguing it was compatable with scripgtuer. Bellarmine said that argued that to say so was to "tolerate giving scripture a meaning ontrary to the holy fathers and to all the greeek and latin commentators, the council of trent had specigfically forbidden "interpreting scripture against the common consensus of the holtyy fathers"

Ballarmine had concluded

cen.acs.org

shape plays a role in surface tension. galieo's arguiment was that it wasn't floating on the water, but on a thin cushion of air.