Selecting Possible Articles
editArea: Berkeley, California, Sanctuary city, and Asylum in the United States
Sector: Temporary protected status and Illegal immigration to the United States
Evaluating Two Articles
editArea: Berkeley, California
I think this article had a tourist-y approach to Berkeley- which I expected but in order to relate it back to my practice experience. I think I want to add a component that discusses its history as a sanctuary city and what it has done for those who are undocumented or immigrants.
Additionally, after looking at the demographics section, I want to update some of the charts to reflect recent changes. The data collected are from 2010/2011 so it needs to be updated.
Sector: Temporary protected status
While reading this article, I found a pattern of information being touched upon but not necessarily gone into depth. For instance, certain pieces of information regarding different nations would only mention the current condition of its TPS status- this happened frequently in the history section of the page. A huge component of history is the reasons of why these countries have been granted TPS status for its citizens. I don't necessarily think that their narratives should be boiled down to a list of bullets in the "Nationals" section of the page.
I actually started my practice experience at the East Bay Sanctuary Covenant this semester so I think I would like to go in depth with a specific country and its relationship to America's TPS policy. I've worked with folks from El Salvador, Guatemala, and Nicaraugua which why I want to do more research on why they have TPS status, why has their TPS status been withdrawn, or perhaps why they don't TPS status.
Additionally, after looking at the talk page, I want to add an economic approach as well and help sort out the role of money in this policy.
Bibliography
editArea: Guatemalan Americans
editUnintended Consequences of US Immigration Policy: Explaining the Post-1965 Surge from Latin America[1]
edit- Discusses different causes for immigration into the United States. I can see this piece contributing to background knowledge for why Temporary Protected Status was granted to Guatemala.
- The original Wikipedia article doesn’t go into depth in regards to its Mayan people. This article can help me contribute by describing the relationship between Mayans, Guatemala, and the United States.
- Looks at Guatemalan presence in New England and the United States over time. I can see this contributing to the history section of the page.
- An overview of immigration to the United States through law, history, and policy. I think this reference can help me add onto the “Legal Issues” and “Public Opinion and Controversy Sections” in the Wikipedia article.
- Focuses on the history and experiences of immigrants from Guatemala in the United States. Want to use information from this book to contribute to the “Profile and Demographics” section specifically since there is a portion dedicated to increased immigration by unaccompanied minors from Guatemala. This may sound area-oriented but I think I’m going to discuss it in terms of its approach to poverty alleviation- so understanding the role of law and policy to produce the need to immigrate.
- Haven’t read the full article in depth but from skimming, I am able to see how the author attacks xenophobic rhetoric and how it was produced by law across the United States. I think this article will be useful by giving me the support to changing the title of the article. This change would be along the lines of “Undocumented in the United States.”
Summarizing and Synthesizing
editArea: Guatemalan Americans
editGeneral Information: (section placement to be decided later)
edit- In 1997, immigration was further limited for Guatemalans through the Nicaraguan and Central American Relief Act. This act allowed Central American asylees to be documented in the United States but called for deportation for those undocumented. At the time, many of those people were Guatemalan Americans. [1]
- There were 430,000 undocumented Guatemalans by 2008.[1]
- During the Cold War, many Guatemalan immigrated to the United States due to the lack of stability from US intervention. Consequently, many Guatemalans received Temporary Protected Status during that time period. Once the Cold War was done, these same Guatemalans lost that status. [1]
- 71% of Guatemalan immigrants are undocumented. Of all Hispanics in the United States, those of Guatemalan origin are 50%[1]
- Mass migration from Guatemala occurred during the 1980s; as a result, changing the relationship with the United States. This time period Guatemala was experiencing high levels of poverty along with social and political unrest. [4]
- Immigration to the United States from Guatemala truly increased in 1977 with a total of 3,599. This was an 82% increase since the year prior. [5]
- During the 1980s were many revolutions led by the Unidad Revolucionaria Nacional Guatemalteca (URNG), the Guatemalan government responded with military action- which largely included genocide of 150,000 civilians during 1981 to 1983. Ultimately, this formed a ripple effect which called for displacement and migration to both Mexico and the United States for many Guatemalans and Mayans. [5]
- Following IRCA, most documented Guatemalan Americans were able to receive legal admission through the petitioning of family members already in the United States. [5]
- The 1970s experienced a high increase of Guatemalans in the United States. According to the 1970 census, there were 17,356 Guatemalans. This is a stark increase considering that there were only 5,381 Guatemalans when the 1960 census was taken. [5]
Cultural Section:
edit- There are one million Maya Indians in the United States- largely from both Mexico and Guatemala. Despite this, the United States fails to recognize Maya Indians as refugees from Guatemala despite the political and social conditions that produce the need for immigration.[2]
- Mayans are at the bottom of the social stratum in Guatemala. This can be accounted by racism within Guatemalan along with the vulnerability that is produced during migration to the United States through Mexico. [5]
| Organization | Location |
|---|---|
| Corn Maya Organization | Jupiter, Florida |
| Guatemalan Maya Center | Lake Worth, Florida |
| Summer Langauge Program | Los Angeles, California |
| Maya Vision | Los Angeles, California |
Phases and Conditions that contribute to Guatemalan Migration to the United States: (section placement to be decided later)
edit- The infant mortality rate of from 1970-1973 in Guatemala was around 82%.[5]
- Guatemala’s agricultural economy was the job market for those impoverished. However, this was not enough to create stability for Guatemalans. During the 1970s, the underemployment and employment rate was 25%. However, during the 1970s, poverty was at 84%.[5]
General Information (section placement to be decided later)
edit- Xenophobic federal and local allowed for the labeling of Latinxs as illegal and paved way for “Latinx expulsion.” In this manner, citizens believed their leaders because of the idea of how much it took from state and federal funding. These citizens believed that undocumented immigrants were heightening the public cost. They believed that these high public costs rippled into the healthcare, the education, the environmental, and employment systems. [4]
- Deportation of undocumented immigrants have consequences of socioeconomic mobility within Guatemala. Households in Guatemala that receive money from Guatemalans in the United States are able to pull themselves into a better economic standing. Whereas, households who lose that money receive downward mobility. [5]
- Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA) disadvantaged Guatemalan immigrants because it allowed for documentation to those who entered prior to 1982; however, Guatemalan immigration largely took part following 1982.[5]
- Mass immigration from El Salvador, Guatemala, and Nicaragua occured due to civil war.[5]
- Most migrant women end up taking part in household work and management.[4]
- Most undocumented migrants end up being hired by U.S. employers who exploit the low-wage market produced through immigration. Typical jobs include: janitorial services, clothing production, and household work.[5]
- Undocumented workers are extremely vulnerable due to their status. Being undocumented makes these individuals susceptible to exploitation for American employers. Undocumented workers are more willing to work through bad conditions and low income- consequently making themselves vulnerable for abuse. [5]
- Many Latin American immigrants are inclined to the labor market because of the constraints they have with their job opportunities. This consequently forms an informal sector within the labor market. As a result, this attachment formulates an ethnic identity for this sector.[5]
- The state of California holds a total of 43% of the United States's undocumented immigrants. Undocumented workers make up seven percent of California's economic product. This is an annual contribution of $63 billion a year. A UCLA study has shown that the gross economic contribution to the Californian economy by an undocumented immigrant is at $45,000 a year. [7]
Legal Issues Section:
edit- Apprehension: Sub-Section
- Policy and law also demonstrates hyper surveillance of those undocumented. For instance, Section 287(g) in the Immigration and Nationality Act which was implemented following September 11. This section does the following:
- allows local law enforcement to arrest individuals those who are undocumented until they are under the custody of Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE)
- requires local law enforcement to send fingerprints to the Department of Homeland Security to see if those arrested are undocumented.[5]
- These policies encourage deportation of undocumented immigrants without a criminal record. It is an attack on undocumented immigrants who have committed minor offenses such a traffic violations. [5]
- Policy and law also demonstrates hyper surveillance of those undocumented. For instance, Section 287(g) in the Immigration and Nationality Act which was implemented following September 11. This section does the following:
- The AEDPA and IIRIRA Acts of 1996: Sub-Section
- The Immigration Reform and Responsibility Act (IIRIRA) was passed in 1996 due to growing fear of Latinx immigration. This measure expedited the removal of undocumented immigrants in addition to building “physical barriers” along the southern border in order to prevent entry into the United States.[5]
- Congress as well as the Clinton administration signed the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act in 1996. In addition to the previously stated measures, it called for higher criminal penalties for immigration violations. IIRIRA also called for longer term detention for immigrants waiting to hear their immigration status. It also broadened what it meant to commit an aggravated felony. Aggravated felonies are crimes that make the undocumented eligible for deportation. With IIRIRA, aggravated felonies now included nonviolent offenses such as shoplifting. [7]
- (New Sub-Section) Proposition 187 in California
- In 1994 Proposition 187 was passed in California. Essentially, this proposition called for a strike down of social services of those undocumented. This serves provided income support, educational benefits, and health care benefits.[7]
- This proposition specifically asked public servants (ex: doctors, teachers) to deny service to any individual that may be undocumented.[8]
Crime and Law Enforcement Section:
edit- Relationship between Unauthorized Immigration and Crime: Sub-Section
- IRCA favored Mexican immigrants because they were immigrating to the United States prior to 1982. [5]
Revised Draft
editAppointment Notes
editArea: Guatemalan Americans
editExpected Contributions:
edit- creating sections and laying the foundation since the article has a lower class rating
- changing illegal to undocumented
- create a Maya Indian Guatemalans in the United States section (was going to add it in the Cultural section of the article originally since it was only discussed there but I want to create a whole new section for it) / answering the questions: What is the Maya Indian narrative in the United States? What are their experiences when coming to the United States?
- talk more about immigration (statistics about the undocumented Guatemalan community and what pushes Guatemalans to come to America)
Expected Contributions:
edit- more filling the gaps since the article has a higher class rating
- changing illegal to undocumented (both in the title and in the article itself)
- fill in the gaps for the Legal Issues Section
- the article is very Mexico and Central America centered, incorporate the narratives from other countries (ex: Philippines)
- expanding on the political/social/economic causes that bring immigrants to the United States
Revised Draft
editArea: Guatemalan Americans
editImmigration (New Section)
editFollowing the 1950s, Guatemala has been full of unrest with military wars, civil wars, and a thirty six year long guerrilla war. These wars have produced over 200,000 deaths as well as the displacement of nearly one million refugees. The Guatemalan government signed a peace accord in 1996. This ended the war; however, the war does not end for the many Guatemalans who have to live alongside those who inflicted the war within their country.[9]
COLD WAR: During the Cold War, many Guatemalan immigrated to the United States due to the lack of stability from US intervention. Consequently, many Guatemalans received Temporary Protected Status during that time period. These same Guatemalans lost that status following the war's completion. [1]
1970s: The 1970s experienced a high increase of Guatemalans in the United States. According to the 1970 census, there were 17,356 Guatemalans. This is a stark increase considering that there were only 5,381 Guatemalans when the 1960 census was taken. [5] Immigration to the United States from Guatemala truly increased in 1977 with a total of 3,599. This was an 82% increase since the year prior. [5] Guatemala’s agricultural economy was the job market for those impoverished. However, this was not enough to create stability for Guatemalans. During the 1970s, the underemployment and employment rate was 25%. However, during the 1970s, poverty was at 84%.[5] Many indigenous Guatemalan workers, in Mexico, were recruited to work with companies within the United States. Many of these workers were already workers at Central American assembly plants. Therefore, the skills were transferrable to plants in the US. As a result, many moved to Los Angeles during the 1970s. [10]
In the 1970s, Guatemala experienced a culmination of factors that decreased their ability to uplift themselves from poverty. These circumstances included an increasing unemployment rate as well as decreasing wages and opportunities in the rural sector. In 1976, they experienced an earthquake that left many homeless.These factors combined with the general violence caused a many Guatemalans to look toward internal, intraregional, and international migration throughout the 1970s and 1980s. When fleeing conflict, many Guatemalans sought refuge in Mexico. For many, Mexico was just another check point within their journeys. In 1982, Mexico experienced economic crisis which had made it difficult for many Guatemalans to sustain themselves. This helps explain the increase of Guatemalans entering the United States throughout the 1980s.[10] Unemployment increased from 25% in the 1970s to over 40% in the 1980s. Rural poverty was at 84% and urban poverty was at 47%. This was difficult for many impoverished Guatemalans because many were reliant on the agricultural economy as their job market.[4]
1980s: During the 1980s were many revolutions led by the Unidad Revolucionaria Nacional Guatemalteca (URNG), the Guatemalan government responded with military action- which largely included genocide of 150,000 civilians during 1981 to 1983. Ultimately, this formed a ripple effect which called for displacement and migration to both Mexico and the United States for many Guatemalans and Mayans. [5] Mass migration from Guatemala occurred during the 1980s; as a result, changing the relationship with the United States. This time period Guatemala was experiencing high levels of poverty along with social and political unrest.[4] Guatemalans sought refuge during the 1980s due to civil war and economic devastation. However, at the time, they were not granted asylum. Despite, this female asylees have been able to receive asylum since then. Femicide has become more popular in Guatemala. In this manner, many United States courts have been granting asylum due to the increase in femicide in Guatemala.[3]
IRCA (1986): Following IRCA, most documented Guatemalan Americans were able to receive legal admission through the petitioning of family members already in the United States. [5] The infant mortality rate of from 1970-1973 in Guatemala was around 82%.[5] Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA) disadvantaged Guatemalan immigrants because it allowed for documentation to those who entered prior to 1982; however, Guatemalan immigration largely took part following 1982.[5]
1990s: In 1997, immigration was further limited for Guatemalans through the Nicaraguan and Central American Relief Act. This act allowed Central American asylees to be documented in the United States but called for deportation for those undocumented. At the time, many of those people were Guatemalan Americans. [1] There were 430,000 undocumented Guatemalans by 2008.[1] 71% of Guatemalan immigrants are undocumented. Of all Hispanics in the United States, those of Guatemalan origin are 50%[1]
Cultural
editThere are one million Maya Indians in the United States- largely from both Mexico and Guatemala. Despite this, the United States fails to recognize Maya Indians as refugees from Guatemala despite the political and social conditions that produce the need for immigration.[2] Mayans are at the bottom of the social stratum in Guatemala. This can be accounted by racism within Guatemalan along with the vulnerability that is produced during migration to the United States through Mexico. [5]
| Organization | Location |
|---|---|
| Corn Maya Organization | Jupiter, Florida |
| Guatemalan Maya Center | Lake Worth, Florida |
| Summer Langauge Program | Los Angeles, California |
| Maya Vision | Los Angeles, California |
Work
editStudies demonstrate that Guatemalan Americans have one of the highest levels of participation within the work force. 31% of those Guatemalan Americans work within the service sector.[11]
Profile and Demographics Section:
(Subsection) Trends
- During the 1950s, there were 45,000 documented immigrants from Central America. In the 1960s, this number more than doubled to 100,000. In the decade after, it increased to 134,000. 26,000 of these immigrants were Guatemalan.[10]
- Migration from Central America had always been below 50,000. However, in 1970, the census had counted 113,913 Central American immigrants. 17,536 of those immigrants were of Guatemalan descent. This was a dramatic increase from the 5,381 count from the decade prior.[4]
- Many undocumented immigrants come from Mexico. Studies have shown that 40 million foreign born residents live in the US. 11.7 million of that population is undocumented.[12]
- During the 1950s, there were 45,000 documented immigrants from Central America. In the 1960s, this number more than doubled to 100,000. In the decade after, it increased to 134,000.[10]
Causes Section:
Mass immigration from El Salvador, Guatemala, and Nicaragua occured due to civil war.[5]
(New Section) NAFTA
- The North American Free Trade Agreement was intended on helping the economies of the United States, Canada, and Mexico. It cut trade barriers and stimulated investment throughout all three countries. Ultimately, it had created undesirable results on Mexico’s economy by producing the lowest amount of economic growth. Before NAFTA, Mexico had high employment. But since then, businesses and investors have left the Mexican economy due to to the new trade opportunities that were presented with NAFTA. Less investment meant less jobs for Mexico’s people. The jobs that still stood were ones of low wages. [13]
- Migration of many Central Americans is largely related to NAFTA; with NAFTA came the demand and regulation of low-wage labor. As well as the displacement of millions of indigenous agricultural workers in Mexico through increased unemployment[14]
- There are many policies that have reduced Mexican immigration into the United States; however, they are most prevalent in the following two: the North American Free Trade Agreement and the Immigration Reform and Control Act. The North American Free Trade Agreement increased the number of Mexican exports into the United States. In this manner, it displaced many rural workers with the shift from imports to exports. Because of this, Mexico's labor markets had to adjust to their new realities. Whereas, IRCA discouraged employers from hiring undocumented workers by penalizing them with fines and/or imprisonment. [15]
Legal Issues Section:
editApprehension: Sub-Section
Policy and law also demonstrates hyper surveillance of those undocumented. For instance, Section 287(g) in the Immigration and Nationality Act which was implemented following September 11. This section does the following:
- allows local law enforcement to arrest individuals those who are undocumented until they are under the custody of Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE)
- requires local law enforcement to send fingerprints to the Department of Homeland Security to see if those arrested are undocumented.[5]
These policies encourage deportation of undocumented immigrants without a criminal record. It is an attack on undocumented immigrants who have committed minor offenses such a traffic violations. [5]
The AEDPA and IIRIRA Acts of 1996: Sub-Section
The Immigration Reform and Responsibility Act (IIRIRA) was passed in 1996 due to growing fear of Latinx immigration. This measure expedited the removal of undocumented immigrants in addition to building “physical barriers” along the southern border in order to prevent entry into the United States.[5] Ultimately, the IIRIRA changed immigration law- especially for undocumented immigrants. It has been even more difficult for immigrants to stay in the United States. It significantly limited the ability of Central Americans to receive political asylum in order to become US residents. IRCA reduced the ability for many immigrants to migrate without documentation. It punished employers who knew they were hiring undocumented workers.[16]
(New Sub-Section) Proposition 187 in California
- In 1994 Proposition 187 was passed in California. Essentially, this proposition called for a strike down of social services of those undocumented. This serves provided income support, educational benefits, and health care benefits.[7]
- This proposition specifically asked public servants (ex: doctors, teachers) to deny service to any individual that may be undocumented.[8]
Deportation Trends
- Deportation of undocumented immigrants have consequences of socioeconomic mobility within Guatemala. Households in Guatemala that receive money from Guatemalans in the United States are able to pull themselves into a better economic standing. Whereas, households who lose that money receive downward mobility. [5]
- Deportation rates have increased since the 1990s. In 1990, the United States deported 30,039 immigrants. In 2008, the United States deported 358,886. Finally, in 2011, the United States deported 392,000 immigrants. [17]
Hart Cellar Act
- During the 1960s and 1970s, the legal conditions of Latin Americans worsened throughout the US. One of those means was through the Hart Cellar Act of 1965. This act created a quota system to grant legal residence visas. [17]
- The Immigration Act of 1965, also known as the Hart-Celler Act, created a new immigration policy that emphasized family reunification over the prior quota system. In this way, it heightened immigration from both Latin America as well as Asia while also increasing the Mexican immigrant population. [8]
Economic Impact Section:
Xenophobic federal and local governments allowed for the labeling of Latinxs as illegal and paved way for “Latinx expulsion.” In this manner, citizens believed their leaders because of the idea of how much it took from state and federal funding. These citizens believed that undocumented immigrants were heightening the public cost. They believed that these high public costs rippled into the healthcare, the education, the environmental, and employment systems. [4]
Crime and Law Enforcement Section:
editRelationship between Unauthorized Immigration and Crime: Sub-Section
IRCA favored Mexican immigrants because they were immigrating to the United States prior to 1982. [5] The passing of IRCA in 1986 was a shift in policy. Businesses would now be penalized for protecting the undocumented.[8]
Work Section:
edit- Within the labor force, Salvadorans and Guatemalans have the highest participation rate. [11]
- Most migrant women end up taking part in household work and management.[4]
- Most undocumented migrants end up being hired by U.S. employers who exploit the low-wage market produced through immigration. Typical jobs include: janitorial services, clothing production, and household work.[5]
- Undocumented workers are extremely vulnerable due to their status. Being undocumented makes these individuals susceptible to exploitation for American employers. Undocumented workers are more willing to work through bad conditions and low income- consequently making themselves vulnerable for abuse. [5]
- Many Latin American immigrants are inclined to the labor market because of the constraints they have with their job opportunities. This consequently forms an informal sector within the labor market. As a result, this attachment formulates an ethnic identity for this sector.[5]
- There were about eight million undocumented workers in the United States in 2010. These workers were 5% of America’s workforce. [13]
- Congress passed the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act (PRWORA) in 1996. This prevented federal, state, and local public benefits from flowing to undocumented immigrants. It also required federal and state agencies to disclose if someone was undocumented. Additionally, PRWORA prohibited states from giving professional licenses to those undocumented. [13]
- Though PRWORA prevents public benefits from flowing to undocumented immigrants, there are exceptions. Undocumented immigrants are still entitled to medical assistance, immunizations, disaster relief, and k-12 education. Despite this, federal law still requires local and state governments to deny benefits to those undocumented. [13]
- The implementation of PRWORA demonstrated the shift towards personal responsibility over "public dependency."[14]
Public Opinion and Controversy (or attacks on Illegal Immigrants section)
HR 4437- the Border Protection, Antiterrorism, and Illegal Immigration Control Act was signed in 2005. This bill criminalized the undocumented as well as the individuals that helped them.[14]
Sanctuary Cities Section:
editProtecting Sanctuary Cities Subsection
Mayor Dianne Feinstein signed a resolution in December of 1985 that made San Francisco a sanctuary city for Central American refugees- primarily for Salvadorans and Guatemalans. [14]
Main Space Information
editArea: Guatemalan Americans
editHistory of Guatemalans in the USA
editThere were 430,000 undocumented Guatemalans by 2008.[2] 71% of Guatemalan immigrants are undocumented. Of all Hispanics in the United States, those of Guatemalan origin are 50%[2]
Immigration (creating a new section)
editFollowing the 1950s, Guatemala had been full of unrest with military wars, civil wars, and a thirty six year long guerrilla war. These wars have produced over 200,000 deaths as well as the displacement of nearly one million refugees. In 1996, the Guatemalan government signed a peace accord. Thus, ending the war; however, the war did not end for many Guatemalans who had to live alongside those who inflicted violence throughout their country.[1]
During the Cold War, many Guatemalan immigrated to the United States due to the lack of stability from US intervention. Consequently, many Guatemalans received Temporary Protected Status during that time period. These same Guatemalans lost that status following the war's completion.[2]
The 1970s was when the United States experienced a high increase of Guatemalans. According to the 1970 census, there were 17,356 Guatemalans. This is a stark increase considering that there were only 5,381 Guatemalans when the 1960 census was taken. [3] Immigration to the United States from Guatemala truly increased in 1977 with a total of 3,599. This was an 82% increase since the year prior. [3] At large, this can be accounted for the lack of stability within Guatemala’s agricultural economy. For many Guatemalans, the agricultural economy was the job market for those impoverished. This market was not enough to sustain Guatemalans at the time. The unemployment rate was 25% and the poverty rate was at 84%.[3] In the 1970s, Guatemala experienced a culmination of factors that decreased their ability to uplift themselves from poverty. The infant mortality rate of from 1970-1973 in Guatemala was around 82%.[3] These circumstances included an increasing unemployment rate as well as decreasing wages and opportunities in the rural sector. In 1976, they experienced an earthquake that left many homeless.These factors combined with the general violence caused many Guatemalans to look toward internal, intraregional, and international migration throughout the 1970s and 1980s. When fleeing conflict, many Guatemalans sought refuge in Mexico. For many, Mexico was just another check point within their journeys. In 1982, Mexico experienced economic crisis which had made it difficult for many Guatemalans to sustain themselves. This helps explain the increase of Guatemalans entering the United States throughout the 1980s.[4] Many indigenous Guatemalan workers, in Mexico, were recruited to work with companies within the United States. Many of these workers were already workers at Central American assembly plants. Therefore, the skills were transferrable to plants in the US. As a result, many moved to Los Angeles during the 1970s. [4] Unemployment increased from 25% in the 1970s to over 40% in the 1980s. Rural poverty was at 84% and urban poverty was at 47%. This was difficult for many impoverished Guatemalans because many were reliant on the agricultural economy as their job market.[5]
During the 1980s were many revolutions led by the Unidad Revolucionaria Nacional Guatemalteca (URNG), the Guatemalan government responded with military action- which largely included genocide of 150,000 civilians during 1981 to 1983. Ultimately, this formed a ripple effect which called for displacement and migration to both Mexico and the United States for many Guatemalans and Mayans. [3] Mass migration from Guatemala occurred during the 1980s; as a result, changing the relationship with the United States. This time period Guatemala was experiencing high levels of poverty along with social and political unrest.[5] Guatemalans sought refuge during the 1980s due to civil war and economic devastation. However, at the time, they were not granted asylum. Despite, this female asylees have been able to receive asylum since then. Femicide has become more popular in Guatemala. In this manner, many United States courts have been granting asylum due to the increase in femicide in Guatemala.[6]
The Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA) was passed in the United States in the year of 1986. Following IRCA, most documented Guatemalan Americans were able to receive legal admission through the petitioning of family members already in the United States. [3] Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA) disadvantaged incoming Guatemalan immigrants because it allowed for documentation to those who entered prior to 1982; however, Guatemalan immigration largely took part following 1982.[3]
In 1997, immigration was further limited for Guatemalans through the Nicaraguan and Central American Relief Act. This act allowed Central American asylees to be documented in the United States but called for deportation for those undocumented. At the time, many of those people were Guatemalan Americans. [2] Deportation of undocumented immigrants have consequences of socioeconomic mobility within Guatemala. Households in Guatemala that receive money from Guatemalans in the United States are able to pull themselves into a better economic standing. Whereas, households who lose that money receive downward mobility. [5]
Cultural
editThere are one million Maya Indians in the United States- largely from both Mexico and Guatemala. Despite this, the United States fails to recognize Maya Indians as refugees from Guatemala despite the political and social conditions that produce the need for immigration.[2] Mayans are at the bottom of the social stratum in Guatemala. This can be accounted by racism within Guatemalan along with the vulnerability that is produced during migration to the United States through Mexico. [5]
| Organization | Location |
|---|---|
| Corn Maya Organization | Jupiter, Florida |
| Guatemalan Maya Center | Lake Worth, Florida |
| Summer Langauge Program | Los Angeles, California |
| Maya Vision | Los Angeles, California |
Education (changed to "Socioeconomic Mobility")
editStudies demonstrate that Guatemalan Americans have one of the highest levels of participation within the work force. 31% of those Guatemalan Americans work within the service sector.[11]
Profile and Demographic Section
Trends Subsection
Many undocumented immigrants come from Mexico. Studies have shown that 40 million foreign born residents live in the US. 11.7 million of that population is undocumented.[12] During the 1950s, there were 45,000 documented immigrants from Central America. In the 1960s, this number more than doubled to 100,000. In the decade after, it increased to 134,000.[10]
The Undocumented in the Workforce- new subsection
Undocumented workers are extremely vulnerable due to their status. Being undocumented makes these individuals susceptible to exploitation for American employers. Undocumented workers are more willing to work through bad conditions and low income jobs- consequently making themselves vulnerable for abuse. [5] Most undocumented migrants end up being hired by U.S. employers who exploit the low-wage market produced through immigration. Typical jobs include: janitorial services, clothing production, and household work.[5]
Many undocumented Latin American immigrants are inclined to the labor market because of the constraints they have with their job opportunities. This consequently forms an informal sector within the labor market. As a result, this attachment formulates an ethnic identity for this sector.[5]
Congress passed the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act (PRWORA) in 1996. This prevented federal, state, and local public benefits from flowing to undocumented immigrants. It also required federal and state agencies to disclose if someone was undocumented. Additionally, PRWORA prohibited states from giving professional licenses to those undocumented. [13] Though PRWORA prevents public benefits from flowing to undocumented immigrants, there are exceptions. Undocumented immigrants are still entitled to medical assistance, immunizations, disaster relief, and k-12 education. Despite this, federal law still requires local and state governments to deny benefits to those undocumented. [13] The implementation of PRWORA demonstrated the shift towards personal responsibility over "public dependency."[14] There were about eight million undocumented workers in the United States in 2010. These workers were 5% of America’s workforce. [13]
Cause Section
Causes by Region Subsection
Mass immigration from El Salvador, Guatemala, and Nicaragua occurred due to civil war.[5]
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)- new subsection
The North American Free Trade Agreement was intended on helping the economies of those who signed it- United States, Canada, and Mexico. It cut trade barriers and stimulated investment throughout all three countries.
Ultimately, it had created undesirable results on Mexico’s economy by producing the lowest amount of economic growth. Before NAFTA, Mexico had high employment. But since then, businesses and investors have left the Mexican economy due to to the new trade opportunities that were presented with NAFTA. Less investment meant less jobs for Mexico’s people. The jobs that still stood were ones of low wages. [13] Migration of many Central Americans is largely related to NAFTA; with NAFTA came the demand and regulation of low-wage labor. As well as the displacement of millions of indigenous agricultural workers in Mexico through increased unemployment[14] The North American Free Trade Agreement increased the number of Mexican exports into the United States. In this manner, it displaced many rural workers with the shift from imports to exports. Because of this, Mexico's labor markets had to adjust to their new realities.[15]
Legal Issues Section
Policy and law also demonstrates hyper surveillance of those undocumented. For instance, Section 287(g) in the Immigration and Nationality Act which was implemented following September 11. This section does the following:
- allows local law enforcement to arrest individuals those who are undocumented until they are under the custody of Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE)
- requires local law enforcement to send fingerprints to the Department of Homeland Security to see if those arrested are undocumented.[5]
These policies encourage deportation of undocumented immigrants without a criminal record. It punishes undocumented immigrants who have committed minor offenses such a traffic violations. [5]
The AEDPA and IIRIRA Act of 1996
The Immigration Reform and Responsibility Act (IIRIRA) was passed in 1996 due to growing fear of Latinx immigration. This measure expedited the removal of undocumented immigrants in addition to building “physical barriers” along the border in order to prevent entry into the United States.[5] Ultimately, the IIRIRA changed immigration law- especially for undocumented immigrants. It has been even more difficult for immigrants to stay in the United States. It significantly limited the ability of Central Americans to receive political asylum in order to become US residents. On the same note, the Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA) reduced the ability for many immigrants to migrate without documentation. It punished employers who knew they were hiring undocumented workers.[16]
Proposition 187 in California
In 1994 Proposition 187 was passed in California. Essentially, this proposition called for a strike down of social services of those undocumented. This services provided income support, educational benefits, and health care benefits.[7] This proposition specifically asked public servants (ex: doctors, teachers) to deny service to any individual that may be undocumented.[8]
Deportation Trends- move Deportation section closer to Deportation trends
Deportation rates have increased since the 1990s. In 1990, the United States deported 30,039 immigrants. In 2008, the United States deported 358,886. Finally, in 2011, the United States deported 392,000 immigrants. [17]
Hart-Celler Act of 1965- new section
The Immigration Act of 1965, also known as the Hart-Celler Act, created a new immigration policy that emphasized family reunification over the prior quota system. [8] Despite this, the legal conditions of Latin Americans worsened throughout the United States during the 1960s and 1970s. One of those means were through this act. This act created a quota system to grant legal residence visas which excluded many Latin American populations. [17]
Crime and Law Enforcement Section
editImpact of Immigration Enforcement
The passing of IRCA in 1986 was a shift in policy. Businesses would now be penalized for protecting the undocumented.[8]
Economic Impact Section
Many citizens believed their leaders because of the idea of how much it took from state and federal funding. These citizens believed that undocumented immigrants were heightening the public cost. They believed that these high public costs rippled into the healthcare, the education, the environmental, and employment systems. [4]
Public Opinion and Controversy
editResponse of the Government- Federal Response
H.R. 4437- the Border Protection, Antiterrorism, and Illegal Immigration Control Act was signed in 2005. This bill criminalized the undocumented as well as the individuals that helped them.[14]
Sanctuary Cities
Mayor Dianne Feinstein signed a resolution in December of 1985 that made San Francisco a sanctuary city for Central American refugees- primarily for Salvadorans and Guatemalans. [14]
Resources
edit- ^ a b c d e f g h i Massey, Douglas S.; Pren, Karen A. (2012). "Unintended Consequences of US Immigration Policy: Explaining the Post-1965 Surge from Latin America". Population and Development Review. 38 (1): 1–29. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4457.2012.00470.x. JSTOR 41857355. PMC 3407978. PMID 22833862.
- ^ a b c d e f g Davis, Shelton H. (2012). "Supporting Maya Home Town Associations in the United States". Practicing Anthropology. 34 (1): 45–48. doi:10.17730/praa.34.1.p087vl55p041388g. JSTOR 24781909.
- ^ a b Foxen, Patricia; Rodman, Debra H. (2012). "Guatemalans in New England: Transnational Communities Through Time and Space". Practicing Anthropology. 34 (1): 17–21. doi:10.17730/praa.34.1.3680361120172836. JSTOR 24781903.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j "ProQuest Ebook Central". ebookcentral.proquest.com. Retrieved 2018-03-07.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar "ProQuest Ebook Central". ebookcentral.proquest.com. Retrieved 2018-03-07.
- ^ Odem, Mary E. (2016). "Immigration Politics in the New Latino South" (PDF). Journal of American Ethnic History. 35 (3): 87–91. doi:10.5406/jamerethnhist.35.3.0087. JSTOR 10.5406/jamerethnhist.35.3.0087.
- ^ a b c d e Haerens, Margaret (2006). Illegal Immigration. Greenhaven Press.
- ^ a b c d e f g Newton, Lina (2008). Illegal, Alien, or Immigrant: The Politics of Immigration Reform. New York: New York University Press.
- ^ "Peace Corps Welcomes You To Guatemala" (PDF).
- ^ a b c d e Hamilton, Nora; Chinchilla, Norma (2001). Seeking Community in a Global City: Guatemalans and Salvadorans in Los Angeles. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
- ^ a b c National Association of Latino Elected and Appointed Officials (U.S.) and Tomas River Policy Institute (1997). Constructing the Los Angeles Area Latino Mosaic: A Demographic Portrait of Guatemalans and Salvadorans in Los Angeles. Claremont, CA: Tomas River Policy Institute and NALEO Educational Fund.
{{cite book}}:|last=has generic name (help) - ^ a b Kawashima, Masaki (2017). American History, Race and the Struggle for Equality. Singapore: Palgrave Macmillian. doi:10.1007/978-981-10-1977-7. ISBN 978-981-10-1976-0.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Gonzales, A.R.; Strange, D.N.; Bakken, G.M. (2014). A Conservative and Compassionate Approach to Immigration Reform: Perspectives from a Former US Attorney General. Texas Tech University Press.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Schreiber, Rebecca (2018). The Undocumented Everyday: Migrant Lives and the Politics of Visibility. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
- ^ a b Richter, Susan; Taylor, J. Edward; Naude, Antonio (June 2005). "Impacts of Policy Reforms on Labor Migration From Rural Mexico to the United States".
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ a b Hufbauer, Gary; Schott, Jeffrey; Orejas, Diana. NAFTA Revisited: Achievements and Challenges. Washington DC: Institute for International Economics.
- ^ a b c d Nicholls, Walter; Uitermark, Justus (2017). Cities and Social Movements. Wiley Online Books. doi:10.1002/9781118750612. ISBN 9781118750612.