Behavioral Endocrinology on Kisspeptin on Sex Hormones
Kisspeptin is a peptide hormone that is formed by the cleavage of the KISS1 gene. Some functions of kisspeptins are signalling the release of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) and suppressing metastasis in breast cancer and in melanoma.[1] Kisspeptin in terms of sexual and social encounters act as a promoter for GnRH secretion. This pathway occurs in the limbic system which encompasses the structural components of the orbitofrontal cortex, hippocampus, cingulate cortex, amygdala, hypothalamus, thalamus, and the ventral striatum.[2]The limbic system controls emotions and behavioral actions based on social cues. The main structural components of the limbic system that control specifically processing emotions is primarily the amygdala, hypothalamus, cingulate cortex, and the prefrontal cortex.[2] Kisspeptin modulates the production of GnRH and the products of GnRH propose a negative feedback mechanism towards kisspeptin.[2] In animal studies researching the role of kisspeptin in behavior, the amygdala was shown to be the core processing center of emotions according to MRI images.[2] This was tested by placing the rat underneath the MRI and showing sexual and non-couple bonding images. The result showed high activity in the amygdala which concludes that the amygdala is the core processing for social interactions, non-couple bonding as well as mating.[2] The hypothalamus is known for working collaboratively with the amygdala because when the amygdala is stimulated, there is a direct increase in GnRH, which is secreted by the hypothalamus.[2] While the amygdala processes emotions and the hypothalamus secretes GnRH, they work together to connect emotional processing and reproductive pathways.[2] When looking at kisspeptins effects on behavior, researchers tested the function of kisspeptin by examining animals that lack the KISS1 gene and animals that have acquired activating mutations of the KISS1 gene.[2] The results showed that the animal lacking KISS1 gene failed to go through puberty and the animal expressing the activating mutations of KISS1 gene went through precocious puberty.[2] These result indicate the crucial role kisspeptin has on activators of the HPG axis and the role of sexual and emotional processing in the brain.[2] Another study that confirmed the connection between the amygdala and HPG axis was administering kisspeptin or antagonist to kisspeptin directly into the amygdala and monitoring the LH output.[2] The results showed that when kisspeptin was injected into the amygdala that the LH output increased, whereas when the antagonist was injected into the amygdala the LH output decreased as well as decrease in pulsitility.[2] Behaviorally, the administration of kisspeptin triggered lordosis behavior in female rats and increase the amount of time a male would be interesting the females odors.[2] When male rats were injected with kisspeptin in the median amygdala, it caused erections.[2] Kisspeptin also is shown to have effects on behavior based on motivation because it interacts with behavioral neuropeptides.[3]
Alterations of KISS1 Gene
When the KISS1 gene was studied to identify the its' importance, it was discovered that without having this gene the species would fail to go through puberty and had infertility.[4] Inversely, when the KISS1 genes were mutated, this triggered precocious puberty.[4] Some studies suggest that with this information that the KISS1 genes are essential for reproduction not only in sex drive but in fertility and puberty.[3]
Pathway of Kisspeptin for Sex Hormone Secretion
In the hypothalamus kisspeptin is secreted from neurons that travel to kisspeptin receptors.[4] When kisspeptin hormones are released, the kisspeptin receptors are activated and and bound ton on the GnRH neurons, this starts the release of GnRH.[4] When GnRH is secreted, this hormone travels to the anterior pituitary to trigger the release of LH and FSH. When these hormones are secreted, they travel to the gonads to signal the production of sex hormones like testosterone, estrogen, and progesterone.[4]
Kisspeptin Affects on Social Behavior
- Acts as an antidepressant in males.[3]
- Reduces fear in males.[3]
- Can induce or reduce anxiety in males.[3]
- Increases male brain activity in processing parts of the brain for sex drive.[3]
- Increased activity in brain for male bonding.[3]
Analysis of a review paper on Schziophrenia
This article talks about the different ways of treating schziophrenia that have been used in the past. This article also focuses on the mechanism of the dopamine D2 receptor and the function of antagonists of such receptors as a course of treatment[5]. They will use anti-psychotic drugs in order to control the persons dopamine receptor binding sites which acts as an antagonist for dopamine[5]. The article states that these drugs being used are far from working perfectly and frequently cause multiple side affects including, motor side effects[5]. With the lack of full effectiveness of the drugs, there are clinical trials being done to both target specfic dopamine receptors, non-specific receptors, and as well as non-dopamine receptors[5].
Analysis of a review paper on Drug treatment through use of Dopamine agonist and antagonists
This article talks about how the pathway of dopamine plays an essential role in the addictive nature of a person towards cocaine. The main focus on this article is how dopamine can be administered in order to help addiction with cocaine and to elaborate the conclusions of both animal and human trials[6]. When animals were administered dopamine they presented less addictive nature while when put into human clinical trials, had inconclusive results[6]. They discussed a hypothesis on why there was convergent data between humans and other aminals. The hypothesis was about how humans have different affinities to dopamine than the animals they tested in the lab, which explained the different reults in both trials[6].
Article Evaluation of Corticobasal Degeneration
I read a category C-class article discussing corticobasal degeneration and similar disorders like parkinson's disease that can involve CBgD.[7] The other disorders aside from corticobasal degeneration that are being mentioned in this article are prevalent because it describes symptoms that can be commonly related to more well known diseases. They state the rarity of this disorder and talk about it displays it symptoms in multiple ways[7]. A lot of this articles sources are several years old, with the exception of one from 2018. A way to improve on the article would be updating sources for newer research. The article seems to be very neutral, non bias, and overall very well presented. They encompassed common symptoms associated with the disorder along with how it can overlap with other diseases and the results of it studied clinically and postmordem.[7] This article encompassed the technology that can be used to view this disorder as well as talk about how it does not have a specific treatment. All of the links in their reference section that I clicked directed me to the article they used in their article. One person commented in the talk page saying how this disorder is sometimes mis-diagnosed but their has been no replys to his comment.
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- ^ "Kisspeptin", Wikipedia, 2018-09-26, retrieved 2019-03-11
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Yang, Lisa; Comninos, Alexander N.; Dhillo, Waljit S. (2018). "Intrinsic links among sex, emotion, and reproduction". Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences. 75 (12): 2197–2210. doi:10.1007/s00018-018-2802-3. ISSN 1420-682X. PMC PMCPMC5948280. PMID 29619543.
{{cite journal}}: Check|pmc=value (help) - ^ a b c d e f g Mills, Edouard G A; Dhillo, Waljit S (Oct 2018). "Kisspeptin and the control of emotions, mood and reproductive behaviour". Endocrinology. 239: Issue 1: R1–R12.
- ^ a b c d e Dhillo, Waljit S.; Comninos, Alexander N. (2018). "Emerging Roles of Kisspeptin in Sexual and Emotional Brain Processing". Neuroendocrinology. 106 (2): 195–202. doi:10.1159/000481137. ISSN 0028-3835. PMID 28866668.
- ^ a b c d Lieberman, J. A.; Fleischhacker, W. W.; Jarskog, L. F.; Miyake, N.; Miyamoto, S. (2012-12). "Pharmacological treatment of schizophrenia: a critical review of the pharmacology and clinical effects of current and future therapeutic agents". Molecular Psychiatry. 17 (12): 1206–1227. doi:10.1038/mp.2012.47. ISSN 1476-5578.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ a b c Rothman, Richard B.; Glowa, John R. (1995-08-01). "A review of the effects of dopaminergic agents on humans, animals, and drug-seeking behavior, and its implications for medication development". Molecular Neurobiology. 11 (1): 1–19. doi:10.1007/BF02740680. ISSN 1559-1182.
- ^ a b c "Corticobasal degeneration", Wikipedia, 2019-01-19, retrieved 2019-01-30