Indigenous feminism is a theory and practice of feminism focuses on the effects of colonialism on Indigenous people, promotes sovereignty, and how the intersectional complexities of Indigenous people affect their livelihood. This branch of feminism explains how the oppression of Indigenous people is the result of a the racist, patriarchal colonization of foreigners. It is a branch of feminist theory that developed out of a need to define the complexities Indigenous women face as a result of the intersections of race, ethnicity, and gender. Indigenous feminism has grown from postcolonial feminism as it acknowledges the devastating consequences of colonization on Indigenous peoples and the importance of decolonization in dismantling oppressive systems that were introduced to their societies as a result of colonization. Differentiating between white feminism and its related forms of feminism (including liberal feminism, mainstream feminism, and Orientalist feminism) and Indigenous feminism is important because "Indigenous women will have different concrete experiences that shape our relations to core themes" than that of white women" (talkin' up to the white woman, xvi) The term "Indigenous feminism" can refer to either to the academic or activist aspect of this practice "that both address sexism and promotes indigenous sovereignty." Indigenous feminism may go by other (geographically specific) names such as: Native American feminism and Tribal feminism in the United States and Canada, or Aboriginal feminism in Australia. It should be noted, that despite the use of the word “indigenous”, the majority of text that refers to “Indigenous feminism” tends to focus on North American indigenous populations. This occurrence does not imply that "Indigenous feminism" is solely a North American phenomenon but it is worth mentioning.
Effects of colonization[edit]
editBefore colonization, many Indigenous communities experienced a type of equality between the sexes that was not practiced by European colonizers. In many Indigenous societies, women played a crucial role in community life and they often, although not always, were afforded "religious, political, and economic power- not more than men but at least equal to men." Indigenous feminism attributes modern-day gendering of indigenous issues to colonization through naming, claiming, and exploiting native people. Sandy Grande further explains how colonizing and decolonizing need to be understood simultaneously in her piece titled "Whitestream Feminism and the Colonialist Project: A Review of Contemporary Feminist Pedagogy and Praxis". She says, "the project of decolonization begins with the understanding that the collective oppression of indigenous women results primarily from colonialism- a multidimensional force underwritten by Western Christianity, defined by white supremacy, and fueled by global capitalism."
The negative realities of Indigenous people today can be attributed to the actions taken by settlers to assert dominance through colonization. White settlers often brought a new type of economic system from their European nation that included the idea of private property, ownership, and gendered labor, which was forced onto Indigenous communities. In A Recognition of Being: Reconstructing Native Womanhood, Anderson notes, "the split between public and private labour and the introduction of the capitalist economies disrupted the traditional economic authorities of Native women." Poverty is a problem for many Indigenous people, and can be traced back to the artificially enforced economic ideals of the colonizer onto Indigenous groups. In order to strip women of political power, colonizers forced regulatory systems onto Indigenous people, the Indian Act of Canada is one example of this. The political and spiritual power of women are often connected, as the spiritual or theoretical role for women can inform a real political role. As a result, "heteropatriarchal religious traditions have excluded women and two-spirited peoples from leadership roles."The combination of loss of power from the economic, political, and spiritual leadership places Indigenous people at a heightened risk of violence. The overall argument about the effects of colonialism "isn't just that we are being colonized, but [also] that we are assuming that nation-state form of governance is the best way to govern the world. (a feminist world is possible)"
Theory and scholarship[edit]
editThe roots of Indigenous feminism are in those of the mainstream feminist movement; however, Indigenous feminism also seeks to incorporate specifically Indigenous perspectives into both of these feminist frameworks. Indigenous feminism diverges from postcolonial feminism as some have argued that postcolonial theory, in general, has largely ignored the histories of colonialism as it exists for Indigenous populations.Some other Indigenous scholars (such as Robert Warrior, Elizabeth Cook-Lynn, Craig S. Womack) have expressed concern over the limits of postcolonial theory and its application to Indigenous studies. There is often distrust of Western theoretical paradigms which can marginalize Indigenous perspectives. In "Who Stole Native American Studies?" Elizabeth Cook-Lynn discusses the significant debate about what constitutes post-colonial, and who gets the privilege of naming when a society becomes post-colonial. As a result, many have moved to Indigenous feminism as a way to redress these issues with postcolonial feminism.
Critique of white feminism[edit]
editThere has been significant resistance to adopting a westernized, mainstream feminist approach to Indigenous rights and self-determination. The most significant criticism of mainstream feminism has been its marginalization of minorities and lack of racial diversity. The priority of white women's needs before those of Indigenous women have a historical root, and therefore make Indigenous feminists weary of homogenizing the rights of "women". White feminists "are extraordinarily reluctant to see themselves in the situation of being oppressors, as they feel that this will be at the expense of concentrating upon being oppressed." (from talking' up the white woman, 94) While Indigenous women may acknowledge that there is overlap in the goals of Indigenous feminists and mainstream feminists, many, like Celeste Liddle(Arrernte) "strongly believe that as Aboriginal women, whilst our fights are related to ongoing feminist struggles within other racially marginalised groups, they are not the same." An argument made my Minnie Grey in her essay, From the Tundra to the Boardroom to Everywhere in Between, is against the focus that feminism has on gender oppression, specifically women, instead that of class, education, and the effects oppression has on men.
We, as Inuit women, have been striving for such things as equal pay for equal work, equal share of roles for the good of the family, equal rights to participate in the decision-making processes of our governments, equal rights for the hiring of women at all levels of commerce and science, equal rights in education, and most importantly, equal rights to raise our children in safe, healthy, and positive conditions. This means, among other things, above the poverty line. I look at these aspirations not as women's liberation, but as people's liberation. In fact, we need and love our men, and similarly, we need to liberate them from the concepts that bind them to unbreakable traditional roles that, in turn, keep the status quo intact in many regions of the world. (indigenous women and feminism, 27)"
Another such example is in the length of time taken to achieve certain rights. For example, while white women deemed to be citizens of Canada were granted the right to vote in 1918, many other women were not allowed the right to vote until much later. Aboriginal women in Canada were not allowed to vote until the 1960s, at which time the second wave of feminism had moved away from such issues. It can also be argued, that the mere fact that aboriginal women had to fight for the right to vote, which is a colonialist concept, is problematic in itself.
Limitations of Indigenous Feminism[edit]
editA major limitation of Indigenous feminism is the division between indigenous bodies and feminist theories, in the realm of academia and in the realm of activism. Many indigenous populations choose to distance themselves from feminism as feminism is viewed as "colonial discourses relevant to western women only" (Shiels, review of joyce green). Feminism as a whole has been generalized as an American phenomenon, with a multitude of scholarly texts describing how Western feminism is not applicable to non-Western bodies. Some Indigenous women believe they are not affected by the same forms of oppression of white women, but many Indigenous feminist scholars and activists argue otherwise. In Making Space for Indigenous Feminism, Indigenous feminist scholars argue the various ways "in which gendered power relations work on the inside and outside of Indigenous communities to devalue and subordinate women" (Shiels, review of joyce green). Aileen Moreton-Robinson argues that all Indigenous women experience living in a society that casts them aside (talking' up the white woman), which ought to be challenged through the practice of Indigenous feminism. This is not to say that feminism as a whole is incapable of identifying universal structures of power that are applicable to indigenous women. A key theme in feminism is the identification of power relations and how it is used as a form of oppression, however, it is not always at the forefront of discussion and can become neglected.
A majority of the text that is labeled as "Indigenous feminism" refers to the indigenous populations of the United States of America and Canada. When discussing indigenous feminist scholars and activists who belong to indigenous populations, said scholars are often affiliated with a Native American tribe (such as Leanne Simpson, Leslie Marmon Silko, and LaDonna Brave Bull Allard.) There are several forms of feminism that address indigenous populations and may follow similar theories, themes, and/or scholarships of Indigenous feminism, but do not directly identify as "Indigenous feminism". These forms of feminism can include Intersectional feminism, Transnational feminism, Postcolonial feminism, Black feminism, Native Hawaiian feminism, New Zealand feminism, Indian feminism, and Asian feminism. These forms of feminism are often separated from one another, in both scholarship and activism, due to the slight differences in beliefs and focuses. This has created conflict in the realm of theory and practice as what should fall under the category of "Indigenous feminism". There has been a call for how "indigenous critiques and feminism could in the end find common ground and enrich each other" by "testing and stretching the spaces of both indigenous feminism and feminist discussions of difference" (sinevaara-niskanen, review of making space). Shauna Shiels argues that Making Space for Indigenous Feminism provides a strong example of what Indigenous feminism should look like. The text states that Indigenous feminism is in need of global perspectives, that it needs to be a inclusive feminist discourse that respects the differences in beliefs, customs, and cultures among different bodies(shiels, review of joyce).
As feminism continues to develop, many scholars and activists share the belief that feminism needs to be inclusive to all factors of oppression and that feminism needs to develop an intersectional lens if progress is to be made. When placed into categories, feminism becomes non-inclusive and promotes the colonial "us vs. them" practice (wlasiuk). As stated by Jarune Uwujaren and Jamie Utt, "a lack of intersectionality leads to an erasure of people and their identities", which in turn prohibits the creations of "solutions that dismantle the intersectional oppressions at play" (everdayfeminism). As this is often what many forms of feminism strive for, it's almost counterintuitive to form categories within feminism itself. For progress to be made, feminism needs to be intersectional and inclusive, which in turn will encompass all the base themes of Indigenous feminism and all other people-of-color feminisms. If Indigenous feminism is to encapsulate the intersectional framework Making Space for Indigenous Feminism suggests, it must include such topics as indigenous people who are multiracial, LGBTQ+ indigenous bodies, indigenous violence committed by indigenous persons, and the active pursuit of inclusion of global indigenous populations and the issues that affect them as well.
Activism[edit]
editResistance to the dominant colonial powers comes in a number of different forms including legal or political protest, healing, and art activism. Idle No More represents an Indigenous feminist activist group that works to "shift the contemporary discourses of rights, sovereignty, and nationhood by arguing that it is Indigenous women who ought to hold the political power of Indigenous nations, or at the very least have an equal seat at the debate table." Their major themes of activism include sovereignty, the resurgence of nationhood, environmental protection, and resistance of violence against Indigenous women. This work is being done through making changes to The Indian Act of Canada, a piece of legislation that restricts Indigenous sovereignty, as well as advocating for environmental protection. Their activism asks people, regardless of Indigenous descent or not, to honor Indigenous sovereignty and to protect the environment (website). Another Canadian organization that focuses and promotes Indigenous feminist ideals is the Native Women’s Association of Canada (NWAC). They work to empower women by developing and changing legislation which affects Indigenous people (website). On October 4th, they encourage the community to participate in vigils entitled “Sisters In Spirit Vigils” where they honor the lives of Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls (MMIWG) (website). These vigils have resulted in the Government of Canada launching a National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls in September 2016 (website). This inquiry examines and reports on the violence against Indigenous women and girls in Canada by looking at the patterns, underlying factors and ultimately, the systemic cause of the violence.(website)” In the United States, the National Resource Center to Enhance Safety of Native Women and their Children (NIWRC) was created “to enhance the capacity of American Indian and Alaska Native (Native) tribes, Native Hawaiians, and Tribal and Native Hawaiian organizations to respond to domestic violence (website).” This organization also shares in Indigenous feminist themes by their dedication sovereignty and the safety of Indigenous women and children.
Working to change the name of "Christopher Columbus Day" to "Indigenous People's Day" is an example of changing the narrative of Indigeneity in the United States. Advocates for this change believe that Columbus has been subject to “adoration”, despite many negative aspects to him, including “his arrogance, his poor administration of his colonial ventures and his blinkered conscience, which was untroubled by the enslavement of Native Peoples, even when doing so went against the wishes of his royal backers. (LA Times)” This day joins other days of celebration of Indigenous populations, including Native American Heritage Month in the United States, Dia del Respeto a la Diversidad Cultural (Day of Respect for Cultural Diversity) in Argentina, Dia de la Hispanidad (Hispanicity Day) in Spain, Dia de la Resistencia Indigena (Day of Indigenous Resistance) in Venezuela, and International Day of World’s Indigenous Peoples.