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A portrait miniature is a miniature portrait painting, usually executed in gouache, watercolor, or enamel. Portrait miniatures developed out of the techniques of the miniatures in illuminated manuscripts, and were popular among 16th-century elites, mainly in England and France, and spread across the rest of Europe from the middle of the 18th century, remaining highly popular until the development of daguerreotypes and photography in the mid-19th century. They were usually intimate gifts given within the family, or by hopeful males in courtship, but some rulers, such as James I of England, gave large numbers as diplomatic or political gifts. They were especially likely to be painted when a family member was going to be absent for significant periods, whether a husband or son going to war or emigrating, or a daughter getting married. At the turn of the 18th century, portrait miniatures were also used to remember deceased loved ones.

The first miniaturists used watercolour to paint on stretched vellum, or (especially in England) on playing cards trimmed to the shape required. During the second half of the 17th century, vitreous enamel painted on copper became increasingly popular, especially in France. In the 18th century, miniatures were painted with watercolour on ivory, which had now become relatively cheap. As small in size as 40 mm × 30 mm, portrait miniatures were often fitted into lockets, inside watch-covers or pieces of jewellery so that they could be carried on the person. Others were framed with stands or hung on a wall, or fitted.

Early period

The portrait miniature developed from the illuminated manuscript, which had been superseded for the purposes of book illustration by techniques such as woodprints and calc printing. The earliest portrait miniaturists were famous manuscript painters like Jean Fouquet (self-portrait of 1450), and Simon Bening, whose daughter Levina Teerlinc mostly painted portrait miniatures, and moved to England, where her predecessor as court artist, Hans Holbein the Younger painted some miniatures. Lucas Horenbout was another Netherlandish miniature painter at the court of Henry VIII. Jean Fouquet, self-portrait (1450). The earliest portrait miniature, and possibly the earliest formal self-portrait.

France also had a strong tradition of miniatures, centred on the court, although this came to concentrate in the mid-16th century on larger images, about the range of sizes of the modern paperback book, which might not qualify as miniatures in the usual sense. These might be paintings, or finished drawings with some colour, and were produced by François Clouet (c. 1510 – 1572), and his followers.

The earliest French miniature painters were Jean Clouet (died c. 1540), his son François Clouet, Jean Perréal and others; but of their work in portraiture we have little trace at the present day, although there are many portraits and a vast number of drawings attributed to them. The seven portraits in the Manuscript of the Gallic War (Bibliothèque Nationale) are assigned to the eider Clouet; and to them may be added a fine work, in the Pierpont Morgan collection, representing the Marschal de Brissac. Following these men we find Simon Renard de St. André (1613–1677), and Jean Cotelle. Others whose names might be mentioned were Joseph Werner (1637–1710), and Rosalba Carriera (1675–1757).

The first famous native English portrait miniaturist is Nicholas Hilliard (c. 1537–1619), whose work was conservative in style but very sensitive to the character of the sitter; his best works are beautifully executed. The colours are opaque, and gold is used to heighten the effect, while the paintings are on card. They are often signed, and have frequently also a Latin motto upon them. Hilliard worked for a while in France, and he is probably identical with the painter alluded to in 1577 as Nicholas Belliart. Hilliard was succeeded by his son Lawrence Hilliard (died 1640); his technique was similar to that of his father, but bolder, and his miniatures richer in colour.

Isaac Oliver and his son Peter Oliver succeeded Hilliard. Isaac (c. 1560–1617) was the pupil of Hilliard. Peter (1594–1647) was the pupil of Isaac. The two men were the earliest to give roundness and form to the faces they painted. They signed their best works in monogram, and painted not only very small miniatures, but larger ones measuring as much as 10 in × 9 in (250 mm × 230 mm). They copied for Charles I of England on a small scale many of his famous pictures by the old masters. Portrait Miniature of Margaret Roper by Hans Holbein the Younger, c. 1535–36

Other miniaturists at about the same date included Balthazar Gerbier, George Jamesone, Penelope Cleyn and her brothers. John Hoskins (died 1664) was followed by a son of the same name, who was known to have been living in 1700, since a miniature signed by him and bearing that date is in the Pierpont Morgan collection, representing James FitzJames, 1st Duke of Berwick.

Samuel Cooper (1609–1672) was a nephew and student of the elder Hoskins, and is considered the greatest English portrait miniaturist. He spent much of his time in Paris and Holland, and very little is known of his career. His work has a superb breadth and dignity, and has been well called life-size work in little. His portraits of the men of the Puritan epoch are remarkable for their truth to life and strength of handling. He painted upon card, chicken skin and vellum, and on two occasions upon thin pieces of mutton bone. The use of ivory was not introduced until long after his time. His work is frequently signed with his initials, generally in gold, and very often with the addition of the date.

Other miniaturists of this period include Alexander Cooper (died 1660), who painted a series of portraits of the children of the king and queen of Bohemia; David des Granges (1611–1675); Richard Gibson (1615–1690); and Charles Beale the Elder and Mary Beale. They are followed by such artists as Gervase Spencer (died 1763), Bernard Lens III, Nathaniel Hone and Jeremiah Meyer, the latter two notable in connection with the foundation of the Royal Academy. The workers in black lead (plumbago, as it was called at that time) must not be overlooked, especially David Loggan, William Faithorne and John Faber Senior. They drew with exquisite detail and great effect on paper or vellum.

On 28 April 1733, there was a terrible destruction of portrait miniatures in a fire at White's Chocolate and Coffee House. Sir Andrew Fountaine rented two rooms at White's to temporarily hold his huge collection of portraits done by Hilliard, the Olivers, Samuel Cooper, and others. The entire house burned down; the number of paintings destroyed was so large that the ashes were carefully sifted to recover the gold from the incinerated mountings of the miniatures.

Colonial India

The portrait miniature was also used as a tool for notoriety, respect, and promotion especially for the British in Colonial India. Young soldiers sent to India were often done so under the impression that their tour of duty would elevate their status in society, secure a promotion, and prepare them for marriage upon their return. The climate in British occupied India proved to be harsh on complexion and many in British society regarded the physical change harshly. Young men had their portrait commissioned upon arrival to India for mothers, sisters, and spouses to prove that their health and safety were of no concern. The portraits were commissioned by the soldiers to send back to families, many of the portrait miniatures were created by British artists temporarily in India. One such artist was John Smart, a portrait miniature artists celebrated during his time. Smart spent 1785-1795 in Madras where he was highly sought after by British soldiers. Portrait miniatures commissioned in Colonial India made from ivory are very different from the ones created with canvas and oil; not only due to the cost of the commission themselves but also due to the fragility and risk of packing and shipment. Shipment of ivory portrait miniatures were often taxed more heavily because of the higher risk of damage or loss. Due to the importance placed on status and the cost of shipping, many scholars have concluded the portrait miniatures not only point to the new methods of artistry but also the cultural history of the portrait miniature in Colonial India.

Spain

Portrait miniatures were used in the Spanish court in the 16th century, dating back to the political alliance between Henry VII of England (r. 1485-1509) and Ferdinand of Aragon (r. 1479-1519). The alliance celebrated the match between Catherine of Aragon (1485-1536) and Prince Arthur of England (1486-1502) with the Treaty of Medina del Campo in 1489. The promise of marriage commenced in the exchange of gifts including jewels and portrait miniatures of the young couple. The popularity of portrait miniatures to commemorate the promise of marriage began to circulate in each court soon after, especially Spain. The tokens of portrait miniatures to commemorate an alliance through marriage were considered extremely intimate and personal to the betrothed couple as well as their families. In Spain as well as the English courts, portrait miniatures were often adorned in jewels or kept in elaborate lockets that could either be concealed or taken out and admired on a whim.

The Spanish painter Francisco Goya (1746-1828) is known to have painted portrait miniatures for mourning and weddings beginning in 1806. The main medium used by Goya was oil but he was also commissioned for pencil miniatures. Between 1824 and 1825, Goya recorded over 40 miniature commissions on ivory while most portrait miniature artists dotted color onto the ivory, Goya shaped the lines of miniatures using water. Goya claimed his shaping technique was innovative and far different from the 'accidental' ink wash technique developed n 1800 England by Alexander Cozens.

Portrait Miniatures and Mourning in Colonial America

Throughout the course of history, mourners have carried portraits with them to honor loved ones. These mourning pictures could take many forms rings, broaches, lockets, small frame pictures, and carried in pockets. Prior to portrait miniatures, loved ones often received tokens of those lost in the form of rings or lockets with inscriptions or images matching ones on the coffin of the deceased. These tokens were a way for those to feel closet to their loved one as the matching images and words formed a bond of sorts. A shift in the eighteenth century from mourning death to celebrating life marked a change in the meaning behind tokens carrying morbid inscriptions and images. No longer did the tokens represent the bond between the departed and those left behind, they now represented a grim realization of mortality. The idea of gender also affected the view of mourning tokens; women were viewed as more emotional to carry tokens and society frowned upon men who carried such tokens. If men were to carry a token of a beloved one, an image of life rather than death would prove to be more becoming.

The first miniature portraits documented in Colonial America first appeared in the 1750's and may have appeared before then. These portraits were usually commissioned to remember someone who died suddenly from illness at a young age. The family of a twelve year old named Hannah had a locket commissioned to make her look like she did before she become ill. The locket carried a portrait of the young girl and had angel wings above her with the words "NOT LOST" written on the side. Portraits such as these carried hope and remembrance instead of the stigma of constant sorrow.

Costume Overlays Example of portrait with costume overlays. From Las Angeles County Museum of Arts.

Example of portrait with costume overlays. From Las Angeles County Museum of Arts.

Costume overlays was a technique where artists were commissioned to paint a subject in costume or altered state of dress to hide the identity. Typically the portrait was commissioned with a think removable overlay made from mica to conceal the identity of the subject.Portrait miniatures were not always commemorated to carry the portraits of loved ones, many also carried miniatures of rulers and leaders they served. At times, these may have been an unpopular ruler and could have caused great harm to those caught with carrying the portraits and measures were taken to hide the identity of the subject. One such example is painting over a portrait in costume to hide the original portrait. Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Department of Costumes and Textiles discovered a series for portrait miniatures from England dating from the 1650's that appear to show the same woman in dress. The woman bore a striking resemblance to English monarch Charles I (1600-1649), who was executed. The king remained popular with a group of followers after his execution and many found subtle ways to honor the king. This discovery is only a glimpse as to how portrait miniatures could also serve as a way to commemorate loss as well as loyalty.

Materials

Vellum: Vellum or primed calf-skin was considered an easy alternative to copper in the seventeenth century. The technique for making vellum was made popular by book illustrating artists. Typically watercolour was used on the vellum as the paper was fragile and laid in place by a card.

Ivory: During the 18th century, watercolour on ivory became the standard medium. The use of ivory was first adopted in around 1700, during the latter part of the reign of William III.

Enamel: Portrait miniatures painted on enamel in oil with copper support was a method created in Italy during the 16th century. There is debate as to whether this method was attributed to Italian artists or Dutch artists. During the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, portrait miniature artist used enamel with a copper support in Germany, Portugal, and Spain. Many Dutch and German artists adopted copper as a medium further enhancing the images. Over time, only elite could afford the copper forcing artists to stretched vellum, ivory, or paper.Dutch and German miniatures were painted in oil, and as a rule these are on copper; and there are portraits in the same medium, and often on the same material, attributed to many of the great Italian artists, notably those of the Bologna school. Samuel Cooper is said to have executed a few paintings in oil on copper. Beginning in the mid-17th century, many watercolors were conducted with vitreous enamel. Jean Petitot 1607–1691 was the greatest worker in this material, and painted his finest portraits in Paris for Louis XIV of France. His son succeeded him in the same profession. Other artists in enamel were Christian Friedrich Zincke (died 1767) and Johann Melchior Dinglinger. Many of these artists were either Frenchmen or Swiss, but most of them visited England and worked there for a while. The greatest English enamel portrait painter was Henry Bone (1755–1839). A great collection of his small enamel reproductions of celebrated paintings is in the British Royal Collection.Enamel stayed a consistent and robust alternative to portrait art miniatures during the 18th and 19th centuries.

Mica: A very thin mineral that can be shaved to transparent pieces also known as talc. The paper think material could be painted on with oil and placed over the portrait miniature so that the holder of the portrait miniature could dress up the subject or disguise the portrait.