Wikipedia

User:AlyssaJordan/sandbox

< User:AlyssaJordan

Week 2: Content Gaps Ideas - "Mammal"

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There were large discrepancies in the comparative aspects of this article with respect to relating mammal function to their skeletal structures. The article was also lacking a few citations for factual information, and these portions that lacked citations could definitely use a bit of paraphrasing. A content gap can be classified as a part in an article that is lacking information, or where there is clearly missing information in an article. Often times, this can occur as a result of lack of knowledge, ultimately highlighting the fact that it does matter who edits Wikipedia because typically you want a person that is an expert in their field, or is particularly knowledgeable about the subject.

Week 2: Individual Article Evaluation

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  • Is everything in the article relevant to the article topic? Is there anything that distracted you? It appears that things are mainly relevant to the article, but something that distracted me would be the timelines that they mention in the article such as "300 million years ago," and "66 million years ago." Where did they get these facts from? Definitely could use a citation in those spots.
  • Is the article neutral? Are there any claims, or frames, that appear heavily biased toward a particular position? Most of the statements, facts, and concepts come from either a scientific paper or a research article. The article is pretty neutral overall.
  • Are there viewpoints that are overrepresented, or underrepresented? Article composed of lots of facts and scientific information, ultimately excluding bias which is beneficial in this case. There seems to be a good balance of information from different sources.
  • Check a few citations.
    • Are they properly formatted? They are properly formatted, but there are spots in the article that lack citations. Adding citations in those spots will be beneficial in an informational sense.
    • Do the links work? The links do work.
    • Does the source support the claims in the article? Yes!
  • Is each fact referenced with an appropriate, reliable reference? Where does the information come from? Are these neutral sources? If biased, is that bias noted? A lot of the references come from scientific papers and primary research articles which is great as these references tend to be more reliable. The sources seem to be fairly neutral.
  • Are there any instances of plagiarism on the page? Have not found any.
  • Is any information out of date? Is anything missing that could be added? "On average, male mammals are larger than females, with males being at least 10% larger than females in over 45% of investigated species" could use a citation! Possibly a larger section on communication/vocalization with some more info on this topic. There was a section, but it was relatively small. The information mainly seems up-to-date but there were some quantitative facts listed in the article such as the sentence listed above, that needed a citation to go along with them.
  • Check out the Talk page of the article. What kinds of conversations, if any, are going on behind the scenes about how to represent this topic? A lot of the discussions are about pictures in the article, as well as fact-checking certain information pieces on the article. People seem to be going back and forth about image edits, and if information in the article is accurate.
  • How is the article rated? Is it a part of any WikiProjects? Unsure of how to look at ratings or if it part of any WikiProjects.
  • How does the way Wikipedia discusses this topic differ from the way we've talked about it in class? This article is heavily fact-based and talks a lot about classification and evolution. There are a lot of subcomponents to the article, but it differs from class content because there isn't a ton of information that centers around one main concept, ultimately making this article more challenging to follow and piece together all the information. There was a lot of free-standing information on certain groups, but the article was lacking in making comparisons amongst these groups.
  • Did you choose to review one of the articles on comparative anatomists that I posted or did you find your own? Reviewed a posted article.
  • Here is some information for you to consider:

Week 3: Group Discussion Draft

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  • Blog posts and press releases are considered poor sources of reliable information. Why? These are considered poor sources of reliable information because they can be heavily biased.
  • What are some reasons you might not want to use a company's website as the main source of information about that company? You may not want to do this because the webpage will be tapered to make the company look good, and it is very likely that there could be bias on it.
  • What is the difference between a copyright violation and plagiarism? A copyright violation is when a specific fixed expression is copied, whereas with plagiarism it is taking someone else's work without giving proper credit.
  • What are some good techniques to avoid close paraphrasing and plagiarism? Good techniques to avoid close paraphrasing could include reading over a portion of an article, and without looking at it try and craft a sentence based off what you remember. Also, remember to paraphrase along with adding your own ideas. There are also various plagiarism checkers out there, so try and utilize those resources. Make sure to always keep an organized reference list, and even if you used a big idea from an article make sure to give proper credit.

Week 3: Add to an Article - "Mammal"Changes: citation and paraphrasing

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  • In "Sexual Dimorphism" section of "Mammal" article:
    • On average, male mammals are larger than females, with males being at least 10% larger than females in over 45% of investigated species.
  • No citation to go along with this piece of information, was able to find the source that it came from.
  • Quote also lacks paraphrasing.
  • Possible new way to paraphrase:
    • Generally, in greater than 45% of observed species, female mammals are 10% smaller in size than male mammals.[1]
  1. ^ Fairbairn, D. J., Blanckenhorn, W. U., & Tamás, S. (2009). Sex, Size, and Gender Roles Evolutionary Studies of Sexual Size Dimorphism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Comments:
    • Tried adding this to the talk page, but was having issues with the citation format.
    • I also wasn't sure about if I should cite the whole book, or if I should just cite the individual chapter that the quote came from?
    • I know how to insert the citation after paraphrasing on the talk page, but it was requiring me to manually enter all the information for the citation listed above. Is there a way that I can insert the citation on the talk page like how I inserted it here, without having to manually enter everything? Also, with manual editing when I would click "show preview" after I drafted what I thought would have gone into the talk page, a lot of portions from the manual citation would be highlighted in red (noting that changes need to be made) but the "help" button wasn't very useful in this.

Feedback: Adding to an Article

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  • I like that you targeted the sexual dimorphism section and found a better source.
  • Because it is a book, it is better practice to find the specific chapter / article from the book
  • For the Talk page, have you already tried to copy-paste what you produced here to put into the talk page?
  • This might be a good thing to actually "show" me during a time when we can chat together (like lab or office hrs) so that I understand the issues you are having?
  • Would you feel comfortable posting one of these things on the talk page if we could sort out the citation issue?Osquaesitor (talk) 00:23, 9 March 2021 (UTC)
    • I can do that! I definitely will make sure to meet with you during a better time to sort this out.AlyssaJordan (talk) 18:18, 12 March 2021 (UTC)

Week 4: Assignment to Group Dissections

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  • Top 3 choices:
    • 1) Shark anatomy - I am interested in editing this page because I am curious about the electroreceptor organs that sharks possess near their nose, eyes, and mouth. When I did a free dive with sharks in Hawaii, we were taken three miles off the shore of O'ahu and I noticed that as the boat got about a mile off-shore, when I looked back I could see sharks swimming up to the surface and following the boat. Also, while holding a GoPro if a shark came towards us we were instructed to extend our hand out and touch the tip of their nose with it. This was all really interesting to me, and I would love to look more into why they are attracted to electricity, as well as look into the science behind this. I am also interested in why sharks become immobile when they are flipped over from their belly onto their back (tonic immobility). What causes sharks to go into this trance and become immobile?
      • Possible edits to this page:
        • Under the "Internal Organs" section, it is lacking information on the spleen and the rectal gland so I could add that information.
        • The page overall could use more photos of anatomical features of sharks. For example, under the "Muscles" section it would be nice for a photo to be present highlighting where these "red and white" muscles are.
        • Sections such as "Integument," "Skin," and "Skeleton" could use more information. I noticed a good chunk of subsections in this page aren't super long, so possibly adding information to those sections could be an option.
      • Relating topics:
    • 2) Cat anatomy - I am interested in editing this page because something that has always sparked my interest about cats is the roughness of their tongues from filiform papillae. They can vary in size, shape, and form and I would love to know more about why this is the case and what purpose this serves.
      • Possible edits to this page:
        • Most of the "Muscles" section could use citations indicating where this information was obtained from.
        • A possible section on reproduction could be added.
        • The "Ability to Swim" section seems a little irrelevant to the page, this could possibly be removed or expanded upon as there is minimal information aside from a sentence in this section.
      • Relating topics:
    • 3) Shark - I am interesting in editing this page because I am interested in how sharks choose their range and habitat. How does a shark decide how deep in the ocean it will live, or how far they will migrate?
      • Possible edits to this page:
        • Need for an expanded range and habitat section.
        • Need for thorough check for any needed citations.
        • The page is really dense and there is a lot of information on it, maybe reorganization of some of the sections.
      • Relating topics:

Week 5: Group Work Individual Contribution to "Shark anatomy" Page

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  1. ^ "Electroreception", Wikipedia, 2021-02-23, retrieved 2021-03-16
  2. ^ "Passive electrolocation in fish", Wikipedia, 2020-08-30, retrieved 2021-03-16
  3. ^ "Ampullae of Lorenzini", Wikipedia, 2020-12-29, retrieved 2021-03-16
  4. ^ Freitas, Renata (January 2006). "Developmental Origin of Shark Electrosensory Organs". Evolution & Development. 8: 74–80 – via EBSCOhost.
  5. ^ Modrell, Melinda (May 2012). "Evolution of Electrosensory Ampullary Organs: Conservation of Eya4 Expression during Lateral Line Development in Jawed Vertebrates". Evolution & Development. 14: 277–285 – via EBSCOhost.
  6. ^ "Apparent death", Wikipedia, 2021-01-28, retrieved 2021-03-16
  7. ^ Bryan, Jones (1986). "The tonic immobility reaction of the domestic fowl: a review". World's Poultry Science Journal. 42: 82–96 – via Taylor&FrancisOnline.
  8. ^ Bernal, Diego (October 2005). "Mammal-like Muscles Power Swimming in a Cold-Water Shark". Nature. 437: 1349–1352 – via EBSCOhost.
  9. ^ Mallatt, Jon (October 1997). "Shark Pharyngeal Muscles and Early Vertebrate Evolution". Acta Zoologica. 78: 279–94 – via EBSCOhost.
  10. ^ Chris_huh (2007-03-06), Electroreceptors in a sharks head, including Ampullae of Lorenzini and Lateral Line canals, retrieved 2021-03-16

Week 6: Draft 1

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  • Possible rearrangement and addition of information:
    • In the Shark anatomy page, they have sections on "Skin" and "Integument," but what should really be changed about this is that the Integument section should be it's own heading, with "Skin" as a subheading because skin is a component of integument. Also, the Ampullae of Lorenzini page could be used to create another subsection under integument that is referenced.
    • Here is the possible rearrangement and addition for the new section:

Integument

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Main article: Dermal denticle

Unlike bony fish, the sharks have a complex dermal corset made of flexible collagenous fibres and arranged as a helical network surrounding their body. This works as an outer skeleton, providing attachment for their swimming muscles and thus saving energy. A similar arrangement of collagen fibres has been discovered in dolphins and squid. Their dermal teeth give them hydrodynamic advantages as they reduce turbulence while swimming.

Skin

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Unlike other fish, sharks do not have scales, but rather denticles. Denticles are made of layers of dentine and a surface of enamel, they are V-shaped.[1] Riblets are sockets in the shark's skin which hold the denticles.[2] These denticles on the skin allow for the shark to move almost effortlessly, move faster, and move quietly. The skin of sharks is similar to the feeling of sandpaper, rough and abrasive.[3]

Ampullae of Lorenzini

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Being most prevalent in cartilaginous fish,[4] fish have a series of sensory organs that are arranged as a network of hundreds to thousands of pores filled with jelly near their eyes, ears, mouth, and nose. These electroreceptors are called ampullae of Lorenzini[5] and in 1678 they were first discovered by an Italian physician and ichthyologist,[6] Stefano Lorenzini.[7] These pores are used to sense and detect electromagnetic fields,[8] and often times these aid in navigational skills and hunting down prey. This can be particularly important at night, because sharks can't just depend on their vision in dark settings, they need another mechanism to help them navigate. Specifically, they are able to detect prey that is buried beneath the sand.[9] There are two different forms of electrolocation, passive electrolocation and active electrolocation, and sharks rely heavily on these for navigation.[10]

Placoid Scales

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Main article: Fish scale[11]

Rough and rigid placoid scales (dermal denticles) coat the skin of sharks, rays and cartilaginous fishes. Homologous in structure to the teeth of vertebrates, these extremely strong scales serve the function of reducing turbulence and drag in water as they are reduce high velocity flow. The larger the fish, the more placoid scales they are likely to have.[11] These projections are extremely teeth-like.[12]

Muscles

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Viewed as pelagic predators, sharks have a constantly elevated body temperature through their continuity in swimming, ultimately posing as a physiological advantage for sharks. A large reason they possess this advantage is due to the fact that they possess a red, aerobic, locomotor muscle (RM) and a white locomotor muscle (WM). Temperature largely affects the ability for muscles to contract, and this is with respect to both the environment and internal organismal temperature.[13]

Red Locomotor Muscle

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Producing approximately 25-50% of a shark's power, the RM is what powers the continuous swimming of sharks. This muscle thrives in elevated temperatures and is seen as almost mammal-like. The optimal temperature range for function is 20 to 30 degrees Celsius, and the muscles are deemed ineffective if exposed to cooler temperatures. Overall, the temperature of the RM is retained metabolically and is greatly above that of the external water temperature. This muscles also receives a sufficient blood supply which is why sharks can swim for extended periods of time, which helps break down fat. This muscle is concentrated in the ventral region of the shark, and is next to the vertebral column ultimately making the spinal column stronger. In other words, the first dorsal fin is posterior to the RM. In other fishes, the RM is more lateral.[13] This muscle is increasingly thermally sensitive in both salmon shark[14] and tuna.[15]

White Locomotor Muscle

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The WM in sharks is not as thermally dependent, therefore it is more optimal in functioning across various temperatures. The help power short bursts in a shark's swimming. This muscle is in close proximity to the RM, ultimately allowing for heat transfer from the RM to the WM. Although more suitable for cold temperatures, there has been considerable benefit from its proximal location the RM, only increasing its function.[13] This muscle is really important in tail locomotion, and is responsible for the pulsating of a sharks tail and propelling the shark forward. The muscle contracts, and then stiffens to allow the shark to coast through the water.[16]

Week 8: Peer Reviews

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Review #1: User:77lemonpie/OrnothologistsL01 sandbox

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  • Overall group box feedback:
    • Really enjoyed reading over your group edits! Focus on really trying to make your sections more cohesive and complete. I know it is still early on so there's plenty of time to make more contributions. I love the images that you guys have, they are really great and help contribute to understanding this page and it's sections substantially. Pay attention to grammatical errors along with spelling.
  • Allie Curtis:
    • Great job editing! I like that your edits are concise, and that you added citations that were needed. Consider creating actual subheadings and then writing in complete sentences rather than using bullet points. This will help with overall organization. Also, if you could elaborate a little more on your descriptions, it would help with overall completeness of your sections that you are editing. An introductory paragraph at the beginning of your section could be helpful also, to lead readers into the section you plan on expanding upon. Overall, focus on making your section more complete. Reading what you have down out-loud also really helps with overall syntax of sentences as well.
  • Janet Chan:
    • Really good start so far! I like that you are focusing on the syrinx as it has allowed you to elaborate more upon one subject. Quality over quantity! I see that you only have one source and it would be awesome if you could find 1-2 more to contribute to your edits. Great job using neutral language! Try to think about expanding your vocabulary and using more specific words, as opposed to words that are broad. For example, you have a sentence that says "overall, this created a better quality output compared to the larynx" and it would be helpful to replace this word with a different one. Perhaps you could say "overall, this created a more superior output compared to the larynx." I also would suggest adding a different link for syrinx as the one you have takes us to a different page that doesn't seem related.

Review #2: User:NoahMcGoff/Cephalochordates Group Assignment

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  • Overall group box feedback:
    • There's some really good editing going on in this sandbox! It was a bit challenging for me to follow who was working on what at times. It's awesome that you are all collaborating on topics, but it could be helpful to each draft what you individually are working on and keep it under your own heading. The "old" and "new" was a little challenging to follow mainly because it was hard to see exactly what was being changed. Great image at the bottom of your work! Overall, I love that you guys are working together and I'm excited to see what you guys add to this page in the near future!
  • Abby Denn:
    • Really great start here on editing! Your citations are looking awesome, and appear to be properly formatted. Creating subheadings for the sections you are editing would be helpful in navigating edits. I love that you added, "with the presence of a notochord, adult amphioxus are able to swim and tolerate the tides of coastal environments, but they are most likely to be found within the sediment of these communities" but I was thinking this could possibly be moved under a separate section for notochord? This paragraph sounds more like a broad intro to what the five synapomorphies of cephalochordates are, so ultimately omitting going into too much detail. Great job rewording and paraphrasing your edits! Your writing is very clear and concise.
  • Noah McGoff:
    • Awesome job so far! Try and really focus on highlighting and making clear the changes that you made. For the five synapomorphies, it would be really helpful for you to make each synapomorphy and individual subheading so that it has it's own paragraph as this would help with the overall structure/organization of your section. Also, another suggestion I'd make is possibly expanding upon your morphology section. I know it is still early, but it would be great to see a little more elaboration in this part.
  • Katelyn Thompson:
    • Great start! Your addition to the morphology section is very good, and I'm excited to see what else you come up with! For that section in particular, it would be really helpful if you created subheadings for each element of morphology that you are planning on talking about. Doing so will make your work a lot easier to follow and draft! For your second proposed edit, I think this section could be really great if you collaborated with Noah to fuse these two sections together. Focus on being concise. Sometimes less is more! Focus on finding some more sources to help build on your sections and expand your writing!

Week 9: Feedback Responses

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  • Think about copying and pasting original section and pasting the edit I made to it underneath so people can see what was changed (or crossing out deleted/edited sentence and adding a new one) -- not going to implement this change due to organizational concerns
  • Clarify what "main article" means
  • Clarify if for shark anatomy page or for other related pages
  • Need to find images, possibly insert images for the "Muscles" section
  • In "Integument" section, correct from "fibres" to "fibers"
  • Add citations for first paragraph of "Integument" section
  • Under the "Skin" section change, "Unlike other fish, sharks do not have scales, but rather denticles. Denticles are made of layers of dentine and a surface of enamel, they are V-shaped" to "Unlike other fish, sharks do not have scales, but rather denticles. Denticles are V-shaped and are made of layers of dentine and a surface of enamel." Also, change "These denticles on the skin allow for the shark to move almost effortlessly, move faster, and move quietly," to "These denticles on the skin allow for the shark to move quietly, swiftly, and almost effortlessly" (Reword skin section in general).
  • Keep the "Skin" paragraph in the same spot and switch the paragraphs "Ampullae of Lorenzi" and "Placoid Scales"
    • Skin, placoid scales, ampullae of Lorenzini (embedded in the skin)
  • Placoid scale main article should be dermal denticle
  • Delete dermal denticle from integument
  • See chapter 6 in the textbook for some good information, and possibly a figure of the shark skin
  • Remove citations on linked words, cite reference at end of section that uses that information
  • Fix citation #13, make sure it is linked to something

Week 9/10: Draft 2

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Integument

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Unlike bony fish, the sharks have a complex dermal corset made of flexible collagenous fibers and arranged as a helical network surrounding their body. This works as an outer skeleton, providing attachment for their swimming muscles and thus saving energy. A similar arrangement of collagen fibers has been discovered in dolphins and squid. Their dermal teeth give them hydrodynamic advantages as they reduce turbulence while swimming.[17]

Skin

edit

Unlike other fish, sharks do not have scales, but rather denticles. Denticles are V-shaped and are made of layers of dentine and a surface of enamel.[18] Riblets are sockets in the shark's skin which hold the denticles. These denticles on the skin allow for the shark to move quietly, swiftly, and almost effortlessly. The skin of sharks is similar to the feeling of sandpaper, rough and abrasive.[19]

Placoid Scales

edit

Main article: Dermal denticle

Rough and rigid placoid scales (dermal denticles) coat the skin of sharks, rays and cartilaginous fishes. Homologous in structure to the teeth of vertebrates, these extremely strong scales serve the function of reducing turbulence and drag in water as they are reduce high velocity flow. The larger the fish, the more placoid scales they are likely to have.[11] These projections are extremely teeth-like.[20]

 
Placoid Scale

Ampullae of Lorenzini

edit

Being most prevalent in cartilaginous fish, fish have a series of sensory organs that are arranged as a network of hundreds to thousands of pores filled with jelly near their eyes, ears, mouth, and nose. These electroreceptors are called ampullae of Lorenzini, and in 1678 they were first discovered by an Italian physician and ichthyologist, Stefano Lorenzini. These pores are used to sense and detect electromagnetic fields, and often times these aid in navigational skills and hunting down prey. This can be particularly important at night, because sharks can't just depend on their vision in dark settings, they need another mechanism to help them navigate. Specifically, they are able to detect prey that is buried beneath the sand. There are two different forms of electrolocation, passive electrolocation and active electrolocation, and sharks rely heavily on these for navigation.[21]

Muscles

edit

Viewed as pelagic predators, sharks have a constantly elevated body temperature through their continuity in swimming, ultimately posing as a physiological advantage for sharks. A large reason they possess this advantage is due to the fact that they possess a red, aerobic, locomotor muscle (RM) and a white locomotor muscle (WM). Temperature largely affects the ability for muscles to contract, and this is with respect to both the environment and internal organismal temperature.[13]

Red Locomotor Muscle

edit

Producing approximately 25-50% of a shark's power, the RM is what powers the continuous swimming of sharks. This muscle thrives in elevated temperatures and is seen as almost mammal-like. The optimal temperature range for function is 20 to 30 degrees Celsius, and the muscles are deemed ineffective if exposed to cooler temperatures. Overall, the temperature of the RM is retained metabolically and is greatly above that of the external water temperature. This muscles also receives a sufficient blood supply which is why sharks can swim for extended periods of time, which helps break down fat. This muscle is concentrated in the ventral region of the shark, and is next to the vertebral column ultimately making the spinal column stronger. In other words, the first dorsal fin is posterior to the RM. In other fishes, the RM is more lateral. This muscle is increasingly thermally sensitive in both salmon shark and tuna.[2]

White Locomotor Muscle

edit

The WM in sharks is not as thermally dependent, therefore it is more optimal in functioning across various temperatures. The help power short bursts in a shark's swimming. This muscle is in close proximity to the RM, ultimately allowing for heat transfer from the RM to the WM. Although more suitable for cold temperatures, there has been considerable benefit from its proximal location the RM, only increasing its function.[2] This muscle is really important in tail locomotion, and is responsible for the pulsating of a sharks tail and propelling the shark forward. The muscle contracts, and then stiffens to allow the shark to coast through the water.[22]

Week 11: Draft #2 Edits Continued

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  • Under the skin section, talk more about the skin and dermis themselves (see chapter 6 in the textbook)
  • Think about inserting a figure for the skin from the textbook
  • Look for images for red and white locomotor muscles

Posted and overview of proposed changes for the article to the talk page of Shark anatomy:

This page could use a lot of work. A possible change could be having "integument" as its own heading and rearranging the order to have "skin" as a subheading and then "placoid scales" as a subheading along with adding "ampullae of Lorenzini" as another subheading. These are all components of the integument, so rearranging the order here could be very beneficial. The "placoid scale" main article should also be switched to dermal denticle, and this article needs to be deleted from the "integument" section. The first paragraph of the "integument" section could also use some citations. The "muscles" section could also benefit from being split off into two more subheadings that would "red locomotor muscle" and "white locomotor muscle" which are the two main muscles in sharks. This page as a whole could also use more images, specifically under the "muscles" section along with the "integument" section. AlyssaJordan (talk) 01:13, 1 May 2021 (UTC)

Integument

edit

Unlike bony fish, the sharks have a complex dermal corset made of flexible collagenous fibers and arranged as a helical network surrounding their body. This works as an outer skeleton, providing attachment for their swimming muscles and thus saving energy. A similar arrangement of collagen fibers has been discovered in dolphins and squid. Their dermal teeth give them hydrodynamic advantages as they reduce turbulence while swimming.[23]

Skin

edit

Unlike other fish, sharks do not have scales, but rather denticles. Denticles are V-shaped and are made of layers of dentine and a surface of enamel.[24] Riblets are sockets in the shark's skin which hold the denticles. These denticles on the skin allow for the shark to move quietly, swiftly, and almost effortlessly. The skin of sharks is similar to the feeling of sandpaper, rough and abrasive.[25] During swimming, the flexible bias of the skin that is positioned 45 degrees to the body length allows for lateral bending. This ensures that the skin stays tight to the surface, but is also flexible, preventing wrinkling and possible turbulence in streamlines passing over the body. Skin is composed of a dermis and an epidermis. In vertebrates, the epidermis produces a mucus coating to help moisten the surface of the skin and can also be used as a defense mechanism from bacterial infections. This can also help with smooth, swift, laminar flow while swimming.[26]

Placoid Scales

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Main article: Dermal denticle

 
Placoid Scale

Rough and rigid placoid scales (dermal denticles) coat the skin of sharks, rays and cartilaginous fishes due to the absence of dermal bone. These scales are present in the dermis, which has fibrous connective tissue components, and project through the epidermis, that contains secretary cells and stratified epidermal cells, to the surface. Homologous in structure to the teeth of vertebrates, these extremely strong scales serve the function of reducing turbulence and drag in water as they are reduce high velocity flow.[26] The larger the fish, the more placoid scales they are likely to have.[11] These projections are extremely teeth-like.[27] The scale projection consists of enamel and a pulp cavity surrounded by dentin.[26]

Ampullae of Lorenzini

edit

Being most prevalent in cartilaginous fish, fish have a series of sensory organs that are arranged as a network of hundreds to thousands of pores filled with jelly near their eyes, ears, mouth, and nose. These electroreceptors are called ampullae of Lorenzini, and in 1678 they were first discovered by an Italian physician and ichthyologist, Stefano Lorenzini. These pores are used to sense and detect electromagnetic fields, and often times these aid in navigational skills and hunting down prey. This can be particularly important at night, because sharks can't just depend on their vision in dark settings, they need another mechanism to help them navigate. Specifically, they are able to detect prey that is buried beneath the sand. There are two different forms of electrolocation, passive electrolocation and active electrolocation, and sharks rely heavily on these for navigation.[28]

Muscles

edit

Viewed as pelagic predators, sharks have a constantly elevated body temperature through their continuity in swimming, ultimately posing as a physiological advantage for sharks. A large reason they possess this advantage is due to the fact that they possess a red, aerobic, locomotor muscle (RM) and a white locomotor muscle (WM). Temperature largely affects the ability for muscles to contract, and this is with respect to both the environment and internal organismal temperature.[13]

Red Locomotor Muscle

edit

Producing approximately 25-50% of a shark's power, the RM is what powers the continuous swimming of sharks. This muscle thrives in elevated temperatures and is seen as almost mammal-like. The optimal temperature range for function is 20 to 30 degrees Celsius, and the muscles are deemed ineffective if exposed to cooler temperatures. Overall, the temperature of the RM is retained metabolically and is greatly above that of the external water temperature. This muscles also receives a sufficient blood supply which is why sharks can swim for extended periods of time, which helps break down fat. This muscle is concentrated in the ventral region of the shark, and is next to the vertebral column ultimately making the spinal column stronger. In other words, the first dorsal fin is posterior to the RM. In other fishes, the RM is more lateral. This muscle is increasingly thermally sensitive in both salmon shark and tuna.[2]

White Locomotor Muscle

edit

The WM in sharks is not as thermally dependent, therefore it is more optimal in functioning across various temperatures. The help power short bursts in a shark's swimming. This muscle is in close proximity to the RM, ultimately allowing for heat transfer from the RM to the WM. Although more suitable for cold temperatures, there has been considerable benefit from its proximal location the RM, only increasing its function.[2] This muscle is really important in tail locomotion, and is responsible for the pulsating of a sharks tail and propelling the shark forward. The muscle contracts, and then stiffens to allow the shark to coast through the water.[29]

Week 12: Adding Images

edit

Integument

edit

Unlike bony fish, the sharks have a complex dermal corset made of flexible collagenous fibers and arranged as a helical network surrounding their body. This works as an outer skeleton, providing attachment for their swimming muscles and thus saving energy. A similar arrangement of collagen fibers has been discovered in dolphins and squid. Their dermal teeth give them hydrodynamic advantages as they reduce turbulence while swimming.[30]

Skin

edit

Unlike other fish, sharks do not have scales, but rather denticles. Denticles are V-shaped and are made of layers of dentine and a surface of enamel.[31] Riblets are sockets in the shark's skin which hold the denticles. These denticles on the skin allow for the shark to move quietly, swiftly, and almost effortlessly. The skin of sharks is similar to the feeling of sandpaper, rough and abrasive.[32] During swimming, the flexible bias of the skin that is positioned 45 degrees to the body length allows for lateral bending. This ensures that the skin stays tight to the surface, but is also flexible, preventing wrinkling and possible turbulence in streamlines passing over the body. Skin is composed of a dermis and an epidermis. In vertebrates, the epidermis produces a mucus coating to help moisten the surface of the skin and can also be used as a defense mechanism from bacterial infections. This can also help with smooth, swift, laminar flow while swimming.[26]

Placoid Scales

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Main article: Dermal denticle

 
Placoid Scale

Rough and rigid placoid scales (dermal denticles) coat the skin of sharks, rays and cartilaginous fishes due to the absence of dermal bone. These scales are present in the dermis, which has fibrous connective tissue components, and project through the epidermis, that contains secretary cells and stratified epidermal cells, to the surface. Homologous in structure to the teeth of vertebrates, these extremely strong scales serve the function of reducing turbulence and drag in water as they are reduce high velocity flow.[26] The larger the fish, the more placoid scales they are likely to have.[11] These projections are extremely teeth-like.[33] The scale projection consists of enamel and a pulp cavity surrounded by dentin.[26]

Ampullae of Lorenzini

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Being most prevalent in cartilaginous fish, fish have a series of sensory organs that are arranged as a network of hundreds to thousands of pores filled with jelly near their eyes, ears, mouth, and nose. These electroreceptors are called ampullae of Lorenzini, and in 1678 they were first discovered by an Italian physician and ichthyologist, Stefano Lorenzini. These pores are used to sense and detect electromagnetic fields, and often times these aid in navigational skills and hunting down prey. This can be particularly important at night, because sharks can't just depend on their vision in dark settings, they need another mechanism to help them navigate. Specifically, they are able to detect prey that is buried beneath the sand. There are two different forms of electrolocation, passive electrolocation and active electrolocation, and sharks rely heavily on these for navigation.[34]

Muscles

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Viewed as pelagic predators, sharks have a constantly elevated body temperature through their continuity in swimming, ultimately posing as a physiological advantage for sharks. A large reason they possess this advantage is due to the fact that they possess a red, aerobic, locomotor muscle (RM) and a white locomotor muscle (WM). Temperature largely affects the ability for muscles to contract, and this is with respect to both the environment and internal organismal temperature.[13]

Red Locomotor Muscle

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Lateral and Cross Section View of Shark Red and White Locomotor Muscles

Producing approximately 25-50% of a shark's power, the RM is what powers the continuous swimming of sharks. This muscle thrives in elevated temperatures and is seen as almost mammal-like. The optimal temperature range for function is 20 to 30 degrees Celsius, and the muscles are deemed ineffective if exposed to cooler temperatures. Overall, the temperature of the RM is retained metabolically and is greatly above that of the external water temperature. This muscles also receives a sufficient blood supply which is why sharks can swim for extended periods of time, which helps break down fat. Red muscle fibers are concentrated in the ventral region of the shark, and are next to the vertebral column ultimately making the spinal column stronger. In other words, the first dorsal fin is posterior to the RM. In other fishes, the RM is more lateral. This muscle is increasingly thermally sensitive in both salmon shark and tuna.[2]

White Locomotor Muscle

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The WM in sharks is not as thermally dependent, therefore it is more optimal in functioning across various temperatures. The help power short bursts in a shark's swimming. This muscle is in close proximity to the RM, ultimately allowing for heat transfer from the RM to the WM. Although more suitable for cold temperatures, there has been considerable benefit from its proximal location the RM, only increasing its function.[2] This muscle is really important in tail locomotion, and is responsible for the pulsating of a sharks tail and propelling the shark forward. The muscle contracts, and then stiffens to allow the shark to coast through the water.[35]

Week 13: Final Edits

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Suggested changes from goal tracking document feedback:

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  • Find better citation for the importance of being cartilaginous
  • "Unlike other fish, sharks do not have scales, but rather denticles. Denticles are V-shaped and are made of layers of dentine and a surface of enamel." Find a better citation for this - possibly use the textbook instead for this
  • For citations #14 and #42 find a better one that is peer reviewed
  • Remove any citing of other Wikipedia pages from "Ampullae of Lorenzini" section along with the "Muscles" section

Integument

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Unlike bony fish, the sharks have a complex dermal corset made of flexible collagenous fibers and arranged as a helical network surrounding their body.[26] This works as an outer skeleton, providing attachment for their swimming muscles and thus saving energy. A similar arrangement of collagen fibers has been discovered in dolphins and squid. Their dermal teeth give them hydrodynamic advantages as they reduce turbulence while swimming.[36]

Skin

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Unlike other fish, sharks do not have scales, but rather denticles. Denticles are V-shaped and are made of layers of dentine and a surface of enamel.[37] Riblets are sockets in the shark's skin which hold the denticles.[26] These denticles on the skin allow for the shark to move quietly, swiftly, and almost effortlessly. The skin of sharks is similar to the feeling of sandpaper, rough and abrasive.[38] During swimming, the flexible bias of the skin that is positioned 45 degrees to the body length allows for lateral bending. This ensures that the skin stays tight to the surface, but is also flexible, preventing wrinkling and possible turbulence in streamlines passing over the body. Skin is composed of a dermis and an epidermis. In vertebrates, the epidermis produces a mucus coating to help moisten the surface of the skin and can also be used as a defense mechanism from bacterial infections. This can also help with smooth, swift, laminar flow while swimming.[39]

Placoid Scales

edit

Main article: Dermal denticle

 
Placoid Scale

Rough and rigid placoid scales (dermal denticles) coat the skin of sharks, rays and cartilaginous fishes due to the absence of dermal bone. These scales are present in the dermis, which has fibrous connective tissue components, and project through the epidermis, that contains secretary cells and stratified epidermal cells, to the surface. Homologous in structure to the teeth of vertebrates, these extremely strong scales serve the function of reducing turbulence and drag in water as they are reduce high velocity flow.[26] The larger the fish, the more placoid scales they are likely to have. These projections are extremely teeth-like.[40] The scale projection consists of enamel and a pulp cavity surrounded by dentin.[26]

Ampullae of Lorenzini

edit

Being most prevalent in cartilaginous fish, fish have a series of sensory organs that are arranged as a network of hundreds to thousands of pores filled with jelly near their eyes, ears, mouth, and nose. These electroreceptors are called ampullae of Lorenzini, and in 1678 they were first discovered by an Italian physician and ichthyologist, Stefano Lorenzini. These pores are used to sense and detect electromagnetic fields, and often times these aid in navigational skills and hunting down prey. This can be particularly important at night, because sharks can't just depend on their vision in dark settings, they need another mechanism to help them navigate. Specifically, they are able to detect prey that is buried beneath the sand. There are two different forms of electrolocation, passive electrolocation and active electrolocation, and sharks rely heavily on these for navigation.[41]

Muscles

edit

Viewed as pelagic predators, sharks have a constantly elevated body temperature through their continuity in swimming, ultimately posing as a physiological advantage for sharks.[42] A large reason they possess this advantage is due to the fact that they possess a red, aerobic, locomotor muscle (RM) and a white locomotor muscle (WM). Temperature largely affects the ability for muscles to contract, and this is with respect to both the environment and internal organismal temperature.[43]

Red Locomotor Muscle

edit
 
Lateral and Cross Section View of Shark Red and White Locomotor Muscles

Producing approximately 25-50% of a shark's power, the RM is what powers the continuous swimming of sharks. This muscle thrives in elevated temperatures and is seen as almost mammal-like. The optimal temperature range for function is 20 to 30 degrees Celsius, and the muscles are deemed ineffective if exposed to cooler temperatures. Overall, the temperature of the RM is retained metabolically and is greatly above that of the external water temperature.[44] This muscles also receives a sufficient blood supply which is why sharks can swim for extended periods of time, which helps break down fat. Red muscle fibers are concentrated in the ventral region of the shark, and are next to the vertebral column ultimately making the spinal column stronger. In other words, the first dorsal fin is posterior to the RM. In other fishes, the RM is more lateral. This muscle is increasingly thermally sensitive in both salmon shark and tuna.[43]

White Locomotor Muscle

edit

The WM in sharks is not as thermally dependent, therefore it is more optimal in functioning across various temperatures. The help power short bursts in a shark's swimming.[45] This muscle is in close proximity to the RM, ultimately allowing for heat transfer from the RM to the WM. Although more suitable for cold temperatures, there has been considerable benefit from its proximal location the RM, only increasing its function.[43] This muscle is really important in tail locomotion, and is responsible for the pulsating of a sharks tail and propelling the shark forward. The muscle contracts, and then stiffens to allow the shark to coast through the water.[46]

  1. ^ "Biomimicry Shark Denticles | Smithsonian Ocean". ocean.si.edu. Retrieved 2020-12-09.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g "Muscle movement anatomy of the great white shark". ultimate-animals.com. Retrieved 2020-12-09.
  3. ^ "Muscle movement anatomy of the great white shark". ultimate-animals.com. Retrieved 2020-12-09.
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  17. ^ Martin, Aidan. "The Importance of Being Cartilaginous". ReefQuest Centre for Shark Research.
  18. ^ "Biomimicry Shark Denticles | Smithsonian Ocean". ocean.si.edu. Retrieved 2020-12-09.
  19. ^ "Muscle movement anatomy of the great white shark". ultimate-animals.com. Retrieved 2020-12-09.
  20. ^ Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Scale". Encyclopedia Britannica, 7 Jul. 2011, https://www.britannica.com/science/scale-zoology. Accessed 26 March 2021.
  21. ^ "Electroreception", Wikipedia, 2021-02-23, retrieved 2021-03-27
  22. ^ "Shark Anatomy". Shark Trust. 2020. Retrieved March 26, 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  23. ^ Martin, Aidan. "The Importance of Being Cartilaginous". ReefQuest Centre for Shark Research.
  24. ^ "Biomimicry Shark Denticles | Smithsonian Ocean". ocean.si.edu. Retrieved 2020-12-09.
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  27. ^ Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Scale". Encyclopedia Britannica, 7 Jul. 2011, https://www.britannica.com/science/scale-zoology. Accessed 26 March 2021.
  28. ^ "Electroreception", Wikipedia, 2021-02-23, retrieved 2021-03-27
  29. ^ "Shark Anatomy". Shark Trust. 2020. Retrieved March 26, 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  30. ^ Martin, Aidan. "The Importance of Being Cartilaginous". ReefQuest Centre for Shark Research.
  31. ^ "Biomimicry Shark Denticles | Smithsonian Ocean". ocean.si.edu. Retrieved 2020-12-09.
  32. ^ "Muscle movement anatomy of the great white shark". ultimate-animals.com. Retrieved 2020-12-09.
  33. ^ Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Scale". Encyclopedia Britannica, 7 Jul. 2011, https://www.britannica.com/science/scale-zoology. Accessed 26 March 2021.
  34. ^ "Electroreception", Wikipedia, 2021-02-23, retrieved 2021-03-27
  35. ^ "Shark Anatomy". Shark Trust. 2020. Retrieved March 26, 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  36. ^ Feld, Katrine (2019). "Dermal Denticles of Three Slowly Swimming Shark Species: Microscopy and Flow Visualization". Biomimetics. 4(2): 4–20 – via University of Copenhagen, Technical University of Denmark.
  37. ^ "Biomimicry Shark Denticles | Smithsonian Ocean". ocean.si.edu. Retrieved 2020-12-09.
  38. ^ Springer, Victor G. (1989). Sharks in Question: The Smithsonian Answer Book. Smithsonian Books. pp. 1–192. ISBN 978-0874748772.
  39. ^ Dean, Brian (2010). "Shark-skin surfaces for fluid drag reduction in turbulent flow: a review". Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A. 368: 4775–4806.
  40. ^ Britannica, T. (2011). "Scale". Encyclopedia Britannica – via Britannica.
  41. ^ Paulin, Michael, G. (1995). "Electroreception and the compass sense of sharks". Journal of Theoretical Biology. 174(3): 325–339 – via ScienceDirect.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  42. ^ Shadwick, R. E. (2012). "Muscle function and swimming in sharks". Journal of Fish Biology. 80: 1904–1939 – via Wiley Online Library.
  43. ^ a b c Bernal, Diego (2005). "Mammal-like muscles power swimming in a cold-water shark". Nature. 437(7063): 1349–1352 – via PubMed.
  44. ^ Syme, Douglas A. (2011). "Red muscle function in stiff-bodied swimmers: there and almost back again". Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences. 366(1570): 1507–1515 – via NCBI.
  45. ^ Bone, Quentin (1978). Locomotor Muscle. Academic Press, Inc. pp. 361–379. ISBN 0-12-350407-4.
  46. ^ "Shark Anatomy". Shark Trust. 2020. Retrieved March 26, 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
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