Wikipedia

Offshore wind power in the United States

Offshore wind power is in the early stages of development in the United States. In 2022, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory estimated that the country has a "technical" resource potential of 1,476 GW (fixed-bottom) and 2,773 GW (floating) offshore wind power.[1] Offshore wind projects are under development in wind-rich areas of the East Coast, Great Lakes, and Pacific coast. The first offshore wind farm, Block Island Wind Farm, began operation in 2016.[2] The first commercial-scale (greater than 100 MW) offshore plant, the South Fork Wind Farm off Rhode Island, was fully commissioned on March 14, 2024. As of May 31, 2024, total offshore wind power was 174 MW.[3]

The 30 megawatt (MW) Block Island Wind Farm opened off the coast of Rhode Island in 2016 as the first offshore wind farm in the United States

Potential and targets

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In 2021 the Biden administration announced a target of 30 GW of offshore wind by 2030.[4] As of 2022, the US had 0.042 GW of offshore wind power,[5] in addition to which Vineyard Wind started coming online in stages on January 2, 2024.[6]

 
Wind energy lease areas off the southern coasts of Massachusetts and Rhode Island as of October, 2022

There is more than 16 GW of capacity planned for the Atlantic Coast. The map at right shows leases executed by the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management for the outer continental shelf off the Massachusetts and Rhode Island coasts, the first offshore wind energy area to be opened for auction, in 2014 (lease assignments as of 2022).[7]

Because of its shallow waters and average offshore wind speeds in excess of 9 m/s, the coast off Massachusetts has the greatest potential offshore wind production in the US, at more than 1 million GWh per year, followed by that of the Gulf Coast states.[8] In 2016, an update to Massachusetts energy law committed the state to purchasing 1,600 MW of offshore wind by 2027,[9] of which the first half was later awarded to Vineyard Wind (see project list below).[10] The shallow waters off the New England coast and proximity to load centers such as Boston, Providence, and Long Island make this area the most economical for both construction of wind farms and delivery of power to favorable nodes on the electric grid.

The state of New Jersey is aiming for 7,500 MW of offshore wind power capacity by 2035[11] and 11,000 MW by 2040.[12] New York has set of target of 2,400 megawatts (MW) of offshore wind by 2030. In February 2022, an auction for 6 lease areas in the New York Bight ended at $4.37 billion, with one area going for over one billion dollars. The combined areas could yield more than 5.6 gigawatts for an annual energy production of 19.6 TWh.[13][14][15]

North Carolina also has great potential for offshore wind production, with above 600 thousand GWh per year, the vast majority of which comes from windspeeds greater than 8 m/s.[8] Furthermore, this industry is expected to add $140 billion and tens of thousands of jobs to North Carolina's economy by 2035.[16] There are currently two offshore wind farms planned in North Carolina, one in Kitty Hawk, and one in Long Bay.[17]

Virginia targets 5,400 MW by 2034.[18]

Great Lakes

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See also: Wind power in the United States § Great Lakes
 
Great Lakes wind potential for Lake Superior and Lake Michigan
 
Wind potential for lakes Huron, Erie, and Ontario

East Coast

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West Coast and Hawaii

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Gulf Coast

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Federal regulation and incentives

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The Energy Policy Act of 2005 provided for tax credits and other incentives for production of wind power.

The construction of an offshore wind farm involves a three-phase permitting process. First, the proponents must lease the seafloor from its owner – typically this will be Outer Continental Shelf, the federal seafloor which is leased by the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) under the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act — but small wind projects can be constructed in state waters as well. The BOEM is the federal agency responsible for determining offshore areas where wind farms may be built in federal waters.[19] It sells leases to qualified bidders.[20] These leases may be awarded non-competitively, if only one proponent is interested in developing the area, or by auction. Once awarded, the lease areas can be further assigned and subdivided into separate projects.[citation needed]

Each project proponent, after winning an auction and making its initial lease payment, must file a Site Assessment Plan (SAP), which details the work required to evaluate the environmental conditions in the lease area, including both surface and seafloor conditions. After the SAP is approved, the proponent will install weather buoys and engage survey vessels to develop sufficiently detailed information to complete the design of the wind farm – this will include identifying protected species habitats, unexploded ordnance, shipwrecks, and geological formations that could interfere with either the foundations for wind turbines or the electrical cabling. After completing the survey, the proponent might choose to abandon the lease area if it appears development will be uneconomical, or else continue to final design and permitting, which culminates in the filing of a Construction and Operations Plan (COP).[citation needed]

In addition to the federal permitting process, all wind farms require state permits for their connections to the on-shore electric grid; even if an offshore project is constructed entirely in federal waters its "export cables" will need to transit state waters to reach the shore. Other permits may be required to connect to the grid, such as certificate of public necessity, as well as private consents from an integrated electric utility or a regional transmission organization.[citation needed]

Wind Energy Areas

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In January 2012, a "Smart for the Start" regulatory approach was introduced, designed to expedite the siting process while incorporating strong environmental protections. Specifically, the Department of Interior approved "wind energy areas" off the coast where projects can move through the regulatory approval process more quickly.[21] The NOAA Coastal Services Center (CSC) has released a cadastre web tool to illustrate suitability of Eastern seaboard areas.[22]

The U.S. offshore wind industry is advancing with the Eco Edison, the first U.S.-built vessel for maintaining offshore wind farms, christened in New Orleans with bipartisan political support. Constructed by Orsted AS and Eversource Energy to service projects in the Northeast, the Eco Edison symbolizes a significant investment in overcoming industry challenges such as inflation and supply chain disruptions.[23]

National Environmental Policy Act

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Like other major permitting actions, approval of the construction and operations plan is subject to the National Environmental Policy Act and requires preparation of an environmental impact statement (EIS). The BOEM is the lead federal agency in the EIS process, coordinating input from other federal agencies including the Coast Guard, the Fish and Wildlife Service, the Maritime Administration, the National Park Service, and the Army Corps of Engineers. In addition to approving each individual project's COP, the BOEM also performs an environmental review prior to opening an area of seafloor to leasing, although this review is not as stringent as a full EIS. The initial review largely serves to identify areas which are not developable and thus should be excluded from leasing.[citation needed]

The full COP review considers impacts to protected marine ecosystems, commercial and recreational fishing, as well as historic and cultural resources. The Coast Guard and Federal Aviation Administration evaluate each wind farm's COP for hazards to navigation and interference with coastal surveillance radars.[24]

Jones Act

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The Merchant Marine Act of 1920 is a United States federal statute that provides for the promotion and maintenance of the American merchant marine.[25] Section 27 of the Merchant Marine Act is known as the Jones Act and deals with cabotage (coastwise trade) and requires that all goods transported by water between U.S. ports be carried on U.S.-flag ships, constructed in the United States, owned by U.S. citizens and crewed by U.S. citizens and U.S. permanent residents.[26]

The lack of ships of size needed to transport large equipment needed for wind turbines has slowed the develop of offshore wind farms.[27][28] To comply with the Jones Act[29][30] wind turbine installation vessels for $300 million could economically supply a schedule of 4 GW projects over 10 years.[31] Two or three U.S. shipyards have the capacity to build such vessels. The Charybdis wind turbine installation vessel (WTIV) is under construction at Keppel AmFels Shipyard in Brownsville, Texas, scheduled for 2023.[32][28]

Tax incentives

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In December 2020, Congress approved a 30% investment tax credit for U.S. offshore wind farms.[33][34]

MARAD grants

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The United States Maritime Administration (MARAD) has made grants for various projects to re-fit or develop new offshore wind ports for the assembly and staging of turbines and other windfarm infrastructure.[35][36]

Wind ports and infrastructure

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See also: Offshore wind port and Ring crane

Several ports are building or converting facilities to handle the large components[37][38] and manufacturing facilities such as a blade factories are planned.[39]

Portsmouth Marine Terminal (VA),[40] Port of Baltimore (MD),[41] New Jersey Wind Port,[42] Port of Paulsboro (NJ), Arthur Kill Terminal (NY),[43] South Brooklyn Marine Terminal (NY), Port of Albany–Rensselaer (NY), Bridgeport Harbor (CT), State Pier New London (CT)[44][45] New Bedford Marine Commerce Terminal (MA),[41] and Salem Harbor (MA)[43] have all been identified as potential offshore wind ports which would support the manufacture of components and staging areas for off-shore wind farms and docking of heavy-lift ships.

In 2019, the University of Delaware and the Danish Energy and Climate Academy jointly opened the first US skills training program for offshore wind energy professionals.[46]

Environmental Impacts

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As offshore wind energy continues to develop in the United States, developers are becoming increasingly aware of adverse side-effects to the environment as well as the extent to which offshore wind farms reduce carbon emissions. The goal of offshore wind farm developers is primarily to improve the environment by providing a source of renewable energy as an alternative to fossil fuels. By using the high speed winds found offshore, wind turbines generate electricity that can be used to power human activity.

Positive Environmental Impacts

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As aforementioned, offshore wind farms have the primary goal of reducing carbon emissions, by providing renewable energy. Evidence of this goal being achieved can already be seen in the United States. Specifically, a study done in Michigan analyzing the effects of offshore wind farms on the Great Lakes has shown improvement to air quality.[47] Additionally, results from the study indicated a decrease in all common air pollutants as a result of the development of offshore wind energy, as well as a projected 25% decrease in CO2 emissions by 2050.[48] Additionally, there is evidence that below the surface, offshore wind farms can provide positive environment effects. The covering used to protect the anchoring mechanisms have been shown to create habitats for marine life, in addition to artificial reefs being installed to mitigate damage to marine life resulting from turbine installation.[49]

Negative Environmental Impacts

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One negative effect to note is the carbon emissions resulting from offshore wind farms. Offshore wind farms for the most part do not emit carbon during the energy generation process, yet during their construction and upkeep there is still a carbon footprint which is noted in a life-cycle analysis of the farm.[50] Continuing with concerns on the environmental impact of offshore wind farms, the construction and maintenance of these farms involve the potential to harm local marine life. Specifically, costal bird species have shown to be harmed by the development of offshore wind farms. Birds have seen increased mortality rates due to collisions with wind turbines, as well as habitat displacement as a result of migration routes being altered as a result of flocks avoiding offshore wind farms.[51] As for the effects on marine life below the surface, during the drilling processes, vibrations are disturbing to marine life and can cause hearing loss for marine mammals.[52] Additionally during operation, the electromagnetic fields emanating from the cables exporting electricity cause further acoustic damage to marine life.[53] Those effects explain the development of floating anchors being used in future offshore wind projects.

Experimental floating turbine projects

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North America's first floating wind turbine was the 20 kW Volturn US, which was lowered into the Penobscot River in Maine in 2013.[54][55][56][57] It is a University of Maine project.[58][59][60] As of 2023, researchers believe that the placement of floating turbines is feasible. Residents of Searsport, Maine, near the potential site, have expressed resistance to placement near their community.[61]

In May 2014, the United States Department of Energy chose an offshore wind projects to receive funding.[62] Principle Power was planning a 30-MW WindFloat project in 2013 using 6-MW Siemens turbines in 366 m of water near Coos Bay, Oregon to be operational in 2017,[63] but the project was cancelled as too costly.[64][65][66][67] Interest has been renewed.[68]

As of 2020, the United States Department of Energy is funding two demonstration projects:[69] University of Maine's Aqua Ventus I, which plans to use a semisubmersible floating concrete foundation design and Lake Erie Energy Development Corporation's (LEEDCo's) 20 MW Icebreaker project[70]

In 2021 the Biden administration approved large areas off the coast California for development of wind farms with floating turbines.[71][72]

List

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Main article: List of offshore wind farms in the United States

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ Lopez, Anthony; Green, Rebecca; Williams, Travis; Lantz, Eric; Buster, Grant; Roberts, Billy (August 15, 2022). "Offshore Wind Energy Technical Potential for the Contiguous United States" (PDF). National Renewable Energy Laboratory. Retrieved November 4, 2024.
  2. ^ "4 Emerging Trends in U.S. Offshore Wind Technologies". U.S. Department of Energy. August 9, 2017. Retrieved August 11, 2018.
  3. ^ McCoy, Angel; Musial, Walter; Hammond, Rob; Hernando, Daniel H.; Duffy, Patrick; Beiter, Philipp; Pérez, Paula; Baranowski, Ruth; Reber, Gage; Spitsen, Paul (August 2024). "Offshore Wind Market Report: 2024 Edition" (PDF). U.S. Department of Energy. Retrieved November 7, 2024.
  4. ^ "FACT SHEET: Biden Administration Jumpstarts Offshore Wind Energy Projects to Create Jobs". The White House. March 29, 2021. Retrieved April 14, 2022.
  5. ^ "Where wind power is harnessed – U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)". www.eia.gov. Retrieved August 18, 2022.
  6. ^ Sabrina Shankman (January 3, 2024). "With a flip of the switch, offshore wind energy enters New England's grid". The Boston Globe.
  7. ^ "Massachusetts Leases OCS-A 0500 (Bay State Wind) And OCS-A 0501 (Vineyard Wind)". Bureau of Ocean Energy Management. Retrieved October 23, 2022.
  8. ^ a b Walt Musial; Donna Heimiller; Philipp Beiter; George Scott; Caroline Draxl (September 2016). 2016 Offshore Wind Energy Resource Assessment for the United States (PDF) (Technical report). National Renewable Energy Laboratory. p. viii. NREL/TP-5000-66599. Retrieved October 23, 2022.
  9. ^ "Offshore wind finally gets blowing in the US". Vox. June 14, 2018. Retrieved August 11, 2018.
  10. ^ "After a decade of dithering, the US east coast went all in on offshore wind power this week". Quartz. May 27, 2018. Retrieved August 11, 2018.
  11. ^ "Offshore Wind | Home". NJDEP. Retrieved March 4, 2022.
  12. ^ "N.J. Gov. Murphy orders big jump in offshore wind". WHYY. Retrieved October 6, 2022.
  13. ^ Foxwell, David (February 26, 2022). "US offshore wind auction blows oil and gas lease sales out of the water". Riviera.
  14. ^ Lewis, Michelle (February 25, 2022). "US offshore wind auction for NY Bight is final, attracts a record $4.37B in bids". Electrek. Archived from the original on February 26, 2022.
  15. ^ McCrone, Brian X. "European Energy Giants Still Dominate Future of Offshore Wind in US". NBC10 Philadelphia. Retrieved March 7, 2022.
  16. ^ "Offshore Wind Industry | NC Commerce". www.commerce.nc.gov. Retrieved October 23, 2024.
  17. ^ "North Carolina Activities | Bureau of Ocean Energy Management". www.boem.gov. Retrieved October 23, 2024.
  18. ^ "Virginia Sets 5.2GW by 2034 Offshore Wind Target". Offshore Wind. March 10, 2020. Retrieved March 4, 2022.
  19. ^ "State Activities". Bureau of Ocean Energy Management. Retrieved May 20, 2015.
  20. ^ Cardwell, Diane (January 30, 2015). "Offshore Wind Farm Leases Draw Few Bids from Wary Industry". The New York Times.
  21. ^ Kit Kennedy (February 2, 2012). "Offshore Wind One Step Closer to Reality in the Mid-Atlantic". Renewable Energy World.
  22. ^ "Offshore Wind Development – Site Suitability Prototype". National Ocean Service. Archived from the original on June 12, 2012. Retrieved February 4, 2011.
  23. ^ Saul, Josh (May 11, 2024). "First US-Built Boat Servicing Offshore Wind Farms Is Ready to Launch". www.bloomberg.com. Retrieved May 14, 2024.
  24. ^ See, for example, "Revolution Wind Draft Environmental Impact Statement". Bureau of Ocean Energy Management. August 29, 2022. Retrieved August 29, 2022.
  25. ^ Pub. L. No. 66-261, 41 Stat. 988 (1920).
  26. ^ "Shipping Under the Jones Act: Legislative and Regulatory Background" (PDF). sgp.fas.org. Congressional research Service. November 21, 2019. Retrieved April 8, 2023.
  27. ^ Penn, Ivan (June 7, 2021). "Offshore Wind Farms Show What Biden's Climate Plan Is Up Against". The New York Times. Archived from the original on October 18, 2021.
  28. ^ a b Craik, David (October 20, 2021). "US offshore pricing stand-off raises vessel sourcing risks | Reuters Events | Renewables". www.reutersevents.com. Archived from the original on October 20, 2021.
  29. ^ Merchant, Emma Foehringer (October 13, 2017). "This Controversial Law Could Stifle the US Offshore Wind Market". Retrieved October 19, 2017.
  30. ^ Papavizas, Charlie (March 21, 2019). "Forming joint ventures to construct US offshore wind farms". www.renewableenergyworld.com. Retrieved March 25, 2019.
  31. ^ "U.S. Jones Act Compliant Offshore Wind Turbine Installation Vessel Study" October 2017
  32. ^ Wei Huang (October 3, 2022). "US initiatives assess current wind challenges, future opportunities". offshore-mag.com. Offshore Magazine. Retrieved April 8, 2023. September–October 2022, print issue
  33. ^ Morehouse, Catherine (December 22, 2020). "Federal stimulus includes wind, solar tax credit extensions, adds first US offshore wind tax credit". Utility Dive. Archived from the original on December 23, 2020.
  34. ^ Democrats Rules House
  35. ^ Buljan, Adrijana (December 24, 2021). "Two US Offshore Wind Ports Secure Nearly USD 50 Million in Federal Grants". OffshoreWIND.biz.
  36. ^ Durakovic, Adnan (October 31, 2022). "Three US Ports Secure Federal Financing for Offshore Wind Projects". OffshoreWIND.biz.
  37. ^ Ford, Neil (May 19, 2021). "US port spend brings offshore wind factories closer | Reuters Events | Renewables". www.reutersevents.com. Archived from the original on June 27, 2021.
  38. ^ Lewis, Michelle (October 21, 2021). "Ørsted is going big on US offshore wind and this is what it needs to succeed". Electrek. Archived from the original on October 22, 2021.
  39. ^ Lewis, Michelle (October 25, 2021). "The US is getting its first offshore wind blade factory". Electrek. Archived from the original on October 26, 2021.
  40. ^ "First U.S. Offshore Wind Blade Facility Will be Built in Virginia".
  41. ^ a b "East Coast ports gear up for offshore wind development – Professional Mariner".
  42. ^ "America's First Offshore Wind Port Breaks Ground". September 10, 2021.
  43. ^ a b Durakovic, Adnan (October 31, 2022). "Three US Ports Secure Federal Financing for Offshore Wind Projects".
  44. ^ "State Pier Infrastructure Improvement Project". Connecticut Port Authority. Retrieved December 10, 2022.
  45. ^ "Port of New London critical component of Offshore Wind Industry Cluster". www.theday.com. Retrieved November 5, 2022.
  46. ^ "Offshore Wind Skills Academy". University of Delaware Div. of Professional and Continuing Studies. Retrieved April 18, 2020.
  47. ^ Nordman, Erik; VanderMolen, Jon; Gajewski, Betty; Isely, Paul; Fan, Yue; Koches, John; Damm, Sara; Ferguson, Aaron; Schoolmaster, Claire (April 11, 2015). "An integrated assessment for wind energy in Lake Michigan coastal counties". Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management. 11 (2): 287–297. doi:10.1002/ieam.1602. ISSN 1551-3777.
  48. ^ Browning, Morgan S.; Lenox, Carol S. (October 15, 2020). "Contribution of offshore wind to the power grid: U.S. air quality implications". Applied Energy. 276: 115474. doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2020.115474. ISSN 0306-2619. PMC 7443953.
  49. ^ Wilson, Jennifer C.; Elliott, Michael (March 14, 2009). "The habitat‐creation potential of offshore wind farms". Wind Energy. 12 (2): 203–212. doi:10.1002/we.324. ISSN 1095-4244.
  50. ^ Reimers, Britta; Özdirik, Burcu; Kaltschmitt, Martin (December 1, 2014). "Greenhouse gas emissions from electricity generated by offshore wind farms". Renewable Energy. 72: 428–438. doi:10.1016/j.renene.2014.07.023. ISSN 0960-1481.
  51. ^ Garthe, Stefan; Schwemmer, Henriette; Peschko, Verena; Markones, Nele; Müller, Sabine; Schwemmer, Philipp; Mercker, Moritz (April 13, 2023). "Large-scale effects of offshore wind farms on seabirds of high conservation concern". Scientific Reports. 13 (1): 4779. doi:10.1038/s41598-023-31601-z. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 10102167.
  52. ^ Bailey, Helen; Brookes, Kate L.; Thompson, Paul M. (September 14, 2014). "Assessing environmental impacts of offshore wind farms: lessons learned and recommendations for the future". Aquatic Biosystems. 10 (1): 8. doi:10.1186/2046-9063-10-8. ISSN 2046-9063. PMC 4172316. PMID 25250175.
  53. ^ "Radware Bot Manager Captcha". doi:10.1088/1748-9326/9/3/034012/meta. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  54. ^ "VolturnUS 1:8 Launched: Maine Brings U.S. Offshore Wind Dream to Reality". Offshore Wind. June 2013. Retrieved May 20, 2015.
  55. ^ Danko, Pete (May 31, 2013). "First US Floating Wind Turbine Launches In Maine". EarthTechling. Retrieved December 2, 2013.
  56. ^ Russo, Gene (2014). "Renewable energy: Wind power tests the waters". Nature News & Comment. 513 (7519): 478–480. Bibcode:2014Natur.513..478R. doi:10.1038/513478a. PMID 25254459.
  57. ^ "America's First Floating Wind Turbine". climate.org. Retrieved May 20, 2015.
  58. ^ Nathans, Aaron. "Two years after Bluewater, offshore wind takes baby steps" Delaware Online, November 30, 2013. Retrieved January 24, 2015.
  59. ^ "UMaine's Offshore Wind Energy Pilot Project Wins Initial Ok," Bangor Daily News. January 14, 2014; retrieved May 23, 2014.
  60. ^ "Offshore wind turbine launched in Castine – Photo – Penobscot Bay Press". Castine Patriot. Retrieved May 20, 2015.
  61. ^ Tankersley, Jim; Plumer, Brad; Swanson, Ana; Penn, Ivan; Dominguez, Leo; Popovich, Nadja (August 13, 2023). "The Clean Energy Future Is Roiling Both Friends and Foes". The New York Times.
  62. ^ "Seattle firm wins $47 million grant for Oregon offshore wind farm". The Seattle Times. Retrieved May 20, 2015.
  63. ^ Ros Davidson. "Floating turbines planned for US west coast" Windpower Offshore, October 14, 2013. Accessed: November 23, 2013
  64. ^ WindFloat Pacific – Offshore Wind Pilot Project "[1]"
  65. ^ Elizabeth Harball, ClimateWire. "Floating Wind Turbines Coming to Oregon Coast". scientificamerican.com. Retrieved May 20, 2015.
  66. ^ "Principle Power – News and Press – Press Releases". principlepowerinc.com. Archived from the original on May 10, 2014. Retrieved May 20, 2015.
  67. ^ Damian Carrington (June 23, 2014). "Drifting off the coast of Portugal, the frontrunner in the global race for floating windfarms". the Guardian. Retrieved May 20, 2015.
  68. ^ "Plummeting costs spur Oregon floating wind activity | Reuters Events | Renewables". www.reutersevents.com.
  69. ^ "Offshore Wind Advanced Technology Demonstration Projects". energy.gov. Retrieved February 10, 2020.
  70. ^ "Nation's first freshwater windfarm all but approved as Ohio siting board removes 'poison pill'". Utility Dive. September 18, 2020.
  71. ^ Davenport, Coral (May 25, 2021). "Biden Opens California's Coast to Wind Farms". The New York Times.
  72. ^ "Floating wind farms off California's coast may be a reality | Fortune".
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