Wikipedia

Irrationalism

Irrationalism is a philosophical movement that emerged in the early 19th century,[2] emphasizing the non-rational dimension of human life. As they reject logic, irrationalists argue that instinct and feelings are superior to reason in the research of knowledge.[3][4][5] The term has often been used as a pejorative designation of criticisms against rationalism as a whole.[6]

The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters by Francisco Goya is interpreted to be a statement on irrationalism.[1]

The philosophy of rationalism, understood as having first emerged in the writings of Francis Bacon and René Descartes, has received a variety of criticisms since its inception.[2] These may entail a view that certain things are beyond rational understanding, that total rationality is insufficient or even harmful to human life, or that people are not instinctively rational and progressive.[6][5]

Overview

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The term "irrationalism" does not refer to an independent philosophical movement, but is a moment and component of various philosophical movements and systems.[5] Irrationalism in the true sense refers to worldviews that are particularly characterized by the moment of irrationality and that also put rational thinking aside in favor of alternative, higher cognitive functions, often in favor of a certain form of intuition. In this respect, the term has found a more specific use for certain philosophical positions.

Core tenent of irrationalism is to be opposed to philosophy of rationalism. Since the term irrationalism is often used as a derogatory accusation to criticize other positions as unreasonable, unscientific and thus wrong, it is controversial as a scientific category, especially in individual cases. Otherwise, however, the term is often used unspecifically and - like its counterpart, rationalism - in very different meanings.

Depending on the area in which theses on irrationalism are represented, one can distinguish between epistemological and ontological (sometimes metaphysical) positions of irrationalism.[7] The rejection of rationality as the only source of meaningful knowledge has far-reaching effects on the assessment of scientific methodology. Therefore, irrationalist positions are often directed against exclusively rational scientific and social theories of development and progress. Traditions of philosophy are also specifically assessed according to these premises.

History

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Johann Georg Hamann
 
Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling
 
Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi
 
Søren Kierkegaard

Irrationalism has its roots in ancient philosophy, with its foundational elements present in schools such as skepticism, sophism[8] and neo-platonism.[9][10]

The philosophy of rationalism, specifically classical rationalism, gained prominence during the Enlightenment, and was presented by the works and studies of René Descartes, Gottfried Leibniz, Baruch Spinoza and Immanuel Kant. Regardless, even during the Age of Enlightenment, these thinkers' notions were being already challenged.[2][11]

Modern irrationalist positions are often traced back to their origins in German idealism and the Romantic movement. Johann Georg Hamann,[12][13] Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi,[13] and Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling[14] are noted pioneers of this philosophy. The common factor for the attribution is usually that of the intellectual views and aesthetic intuitions which Immanuel Kant was opposed to, given an special priority.

Friedrich Engels polemicized that Schelling's 1854 lecture, known as "Philosophie der Offenbarung", was the "first attempt to smuggle belief in authority, emotional mysticism, and gnostic fantasy into the free science of thought."[15] Older histories of philosophy, such as that of Wilhelm Windelband, also characterized Schelling and related positions as "irrationalist metaphysics."[16] Romantic movement has been attributed with an irrationalist attitude, although more recent studies also emphasize that the Age of Enlightenment impulses also arose from the aforementioned movement.

György Lukács has argued that the first period of irrationalism arose with Schelling and Kierkegaard, in a fight against the dialectical concept of progress embraced by German idealism.[17] Irrationalism is notably researched by Italian academics, who study it in regards with the D'Annunzio movement [it] (cultural movement spearheaded by Gabriele D'Annunzio)[18] and Italian Fascism.[19]

Oswald Spengler believed that the materialist vision of Karl Marx was based on nineteenth-century science, while the twentieth century would be the age of psychology:[20]

"We no longer believe in the power of reason over life. We feel that it is life which dominates reason."

— Oswald Spengler. Politische Schriften, 1932.[21]

Numerous historians also trace important elements of the ideology of German National Socialism back to irrationalist, particularly romantic, origins.[22]

Categories of Irrationalism

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In philosophy, it is agreed to distinguish two major categories of irrationalism; epistemological and ontological (sometimes defined as metaphysical instead).[23][24][25]

Epistemological irrationalism

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Representatives of this school of thought declare that human reason alone is incapable of recognizing the foundations, connections and laws of objective reality. As alternatives to descriptive and normative explanations of the world, some “higher” cognitive functions such as essential perception, faith, intuition or “direct experience” are suggested.

In contrast to rationalism, purely rational knowledge is not considered to be true knowledge, which must also rely on feelings, the mind or the soul. These views often play a role in connection with religious, esoteric and occult, but also political views.

This thought is affirmed by the skeptics (Pyrrho, Hume), the agnostics, the sophists, the Kantian idealists, the positivists, the Nietzscheans, etc.

Ontological irrationalism

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For the irrationalist in a metaphysical interpretation, certain areas (such as life, psychological processes, history) are considered irrational, i.e. not exclusively governed by rational laws and laws. Irrationality is declared to be the essence of reality itself, regardless of the human ability to know. The possibility of gaining scientific knowledge in these areas is thus denied.[26]

Apart from mystical positions, the majority of theology in Christianity and other religions rejects this view and instead assumes a natural or divine order. Metaphysical irrationalism can thus also be seen as the opposite of naturalism, although it does not imply any supernatural entities.

This position is taken by mystical thinkers (Eckhart, Boehme), the neoplatonists (Plotinus, Paracelsus), the romantic philosophers (Schelling) and spiritualists (Bergson).

Forms of Irrationalism

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There is controversy over whether the term irrationalism is suitable as a historical category and to which positions it can be attributed.

Lebensphilosophie

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Main article: Lebensphilosophie

History of irrationalism greatly overlaps with that of Lebensphilosophie. Both philosophical movements recognize Arthur Schopenhauer as a major 19th century thinker, with Schopenhauer's ontological irrationalism, describing that world as not organized in a rational way. Since humans are born as bodies-manifestations of an irrational striving for meaning, they are vulnerable to pain and suffering.[27]

Likewise, Friedrich Nietzsche[28] and Henri Bergson[29] are both recognized as Lebensphilosophie pioneers and representatives of irrationalism. In his 1886 book, Beyond Good and Evil, Nietzsche emphasized that humans by nature are irrational and criticized attempts of "rationality" of trying to neglect the fact.[30]

Neo-Hegelianism

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Certain positions of neo-Hegelianism are considered to fall in form of irrationalism.[31]

Existentialism

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Existentialism is considered form of irrationalism.[32] Søren Kierkegaard's assessment of religious belief is controversial. Some attribute fideism to him because he excludes religious truths from access by reason.[17]

An expression of modern irrationalism is the thought of Martin Heidegger in his final phase, who maintains that man's thought goes beyond what metaphysics and science have tried to fix dogmatically, making sure that "... thought will only begin when it realizes that the reason glorified for centuries is the most bitter enemy of thought."[33]

Aestheticism (Futurism, Dadaism)

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Connected to irrationalism is also aestheticism, which arose between the 19th and 20th centuries, particularly present in the West European Decadent movement and the Italian D'Annunzio movement [it]. In his 1889 novel, Il piacere, which is determined to be partly autobiographical,[34][35] Gabriele D'Annunzio describes how the aesthete lets himself be guided only by the perennial flow of sensations, without following a logical or moral order.[36][37]

In the artistic-literary field, the theme of irrationalism, as a reaction to the positivist and rationalist tendencies of bourgeois society, is found both in decadentism and especially in its counterpart: futurism.[38] In it, the exaltation of technology and progress prevails, accompanied by a rejection of pre-established schemes and traditional rules. The use of "free words" testifies, for example, to the will to transgress the logic of syntactic-grammatical constructs, while activism and the intoxication of living are celebrated as key elements of its manifesto.[39][40]

Finally, the aesthetic current of Dadaism falls within irrationalism. It was born as a protest against the atrocities of the First World War and later became a sort of "artistic nihilism". Reason and logic had left humanity the horrors of war, and the only way of salvation was the rejection of logic to embrace anarchy[41] and the irrational. However, it has been observed that anarchy and the rejection of values and order retain a certain rationality: the systematic destruction of values is not irrational, if one thinks that it must be put into action.[42]

Other forms of irrationalism

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Elements of irrationalism have also been identified by various quarters in some philosophical positions in 20th century philosophy and contemporary philosophy. These attributions are, of course, controversial. They have been made, for example, for:

Irrationalism outside of philosophy

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Irrational behavior can be useful when used tactically in certain conflict, game and escape situations. The moves of an irrational opponent are not (or only very limitedly) predictable. An irrational negotiator cannot be put under rational pressure.[52]

An indirect tactic is the rational use of the irrationalism of third parties. One concrete implementation of this tactic in human history has been, and continues to be, the use of suicide bombers, particularly in so-called asymmetric warfare.

To the extent that assassinations themselves arise from irrationalism, they can be used rationally, for example with the aim of making profits from conflicts. This is where irrationalism becomes strategic. Tactical irrationality gives rationally fought terrorism its strong effect. Beyond tactics, terrorism can even be understood as strategic irrationality.

Furthermore, strategic irrationalism is an important basis for the development and exploitation of niches in the esoteric market as well as by sectarian religious communities. But even in socially widely accepted market areas, irrationalism is used tactically and strategically. There, it is one of the most important elements of advertising.

In situations comparable to the prisoner's dilemma, irrational behavior in the sense of game theory sometimes has advantages. If both players play irrationally, both achieve a higher profit than if both play rationally. But if only one of the two plays irrationally, he or she incurs the greatest possible loss. Rational play here means maximizing profits regardless of the other's moves.

Discussion on 20th century Irrationalism

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In his 1953 work, The Destruction of Reason, György Lukács aimed to demonstrate how the widespread irrationalism in the West, from Friedrich Schelling to Nietzsche, was nothing other than an expression of the crisis experienced by the bourgeois class, which attempted to justify its existence by will to power and imperialist politics.[53]

In opposition to Lukacs, the Frankfurt school elaborated the theory of "negative thinking", taking up the "irrationalist" themes of Nietzsche and logical neo-positivism has detected irrationalist components in the belief in the impossibility of linguistically defining the senseless reality of the world (as seen with Ludwig Wittgenstein) and of demonstrating the validity of the moral and social values of the human being.[54]

Karl Popper also leveled accusations of irrationalism at the philosophies of Hegel and Marx, for having elevated contradiction to a fundamental characteristic of reality. According to Popper, to maintain that reality is intimately contradictory means to evade the criteria of logic and therefore, dishonestly, the very risk of being refuted by the facts. Being manifestly contrary to the principle of non-contradiction, which should guide not only science but also political action, the Hegelian-Marxist dialectic cannot therefore have any real and ontological value.[55]

Totalitarianism

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Question regarding irrationalism were debated particularly in the twentieth century due to its political connection to the founding ideologies of the main totalitarian states of Europe, that had come into being after the outcome of the First World War, namely the Third Reich (Nazism), the Kingdom of Italy (Fascism)[56] and the Soviet Union (Communism).[57]

Nazism openly referred to the thought of Friedrich Nietzsche, or rather to the version distorted by his sister Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche,[58] and also to Oswald Spengler's work The Decline of the West.[59][44] By referring to the irrationalist theories of German vitalism (Lebensphilosophie), these works built a narrative that all civilizations go through a natural cycle of development, flowering and decadence, and that Europe, victim of a narrow materialism and urban chaos, was in the last stage: the winter of a world that had known more fruitful seasons. Europe, unless it managed to purify itself and restore its spiritual values and its original stock, would fall prey to savage policies and wars of annihilation.[60]

Influenced by Goethe, Wilhelm Dilthey, Nietzsche (in particular by his theory of the Eternal Return) and Greek thought, Spengler understood history as a constant process of decay to which it was necessary to react with the establishment of a strongly authoritarian state, partly close to that predicted by the Nazis.[61] György Lukács pointed to combined notions of Oswald Spengler, Martin Heidegger (existentialism), Ludwig Klages (interwar Lebensphilosophie) of giving Nazis the means of mythologizing history to their will, by exploiting epistemology for sake of historical relativism. Lukács stating that;

With Spengler, real history was supplanted by the myths; with Heidegger it sank into unauthenticity; with Klages it was presented as a set of parables on the Fall of man resulting from the dominance of reason and the infamous intellect.

— György Lukács[62]

Italian Fascism saw Georges Sorel's "philosophy of violence" as the basis of its ideology, while Marxism had to deal with the irrationalist theories of anarchist-revolutionary communism as theorized by Mikhail Bakunin.

References

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Sources

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  • Duignan, Brian. "Irrationalism". Irrationalism | Existentialism, Skepticism & Nihilism | Britannica. Retrieved 2019-09-05.
  • Lukács, György (1981) [1953]. The Destruction of Reason. Humanities Press. ISBN 9780391022478.
  • Mattingly, James, ed. (October 22, 2022). The SAGE Encyclopedia of Theory in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics. SAGE Publications. ISBN 9781506353289.

Citations

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  1. ^ Nehamas, Alexander (2001). "The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters". Representations. 74 (Spring): 37–54. doi:10.1525/rep.2001.74.1.37.
  2. ^ a b c Callahan, Gene; McIntyre, Kenneth B., eds. (2020). "Introduction". Critics of Enlightenment Rationalism. Palgrave Studies in Classical Liberalism. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 1. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-42599-9. ISBN 978-3-030-42598-2. S2CID 243029515.
  3. ^ "Irrationalisme". CNRTL. Retrieved 2019-09-05.
  4. ^ Kukla, André (2013-01-11). Social Constructivism and the Philosophy of Science. Routledge. p. 149. ISBN 9781134567386.
  5. ^ a b c d Duignan, Encyclopædia Britannica
  6. ^ a b "Irrationalism". Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2nd ed.). Macmillan Library Reference. 2005.
  7. ^ (See Categories of Irrationalism)
  8. ^ Hroch, Jaroslav; Gabriel, Jiří; Nový, Lubomír, eds. (1994). Paideia Press & The Council for Research in Values and Philosophy. Paideia Press & The Council for Research in Values and Philosophy. p. 50. ISBN 9781565180291.
  9. ^ The Routledge Handbook of Neoplatonism. Taylor & Francis. 2014. p. 87. ISBN 9781317591368.
  10. ^ Harris, R. Baine, ed. (2002). "The Influence of Plotinus on Bergson's Critique of Empirical Science". Neoplatonism and Contemporary Thought: Part One. State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-5276-X.
  11. ^ Bourke, Vernon J., Rationalism, p. 263 in Runes (1962).
  12. ^ Dahlstrom, Daniel O., ed. (November 22, 2018). Kant and his German Contemporaries: Volume 2, Aesthetics, History, Politics, and Religion. Cambridge University Press. p. 10, 238. ISBN 978-1107178168.
  13. ^ a b Berlin, Isaiah (June 3, 2023) [1979]. Hardy, Henry (ed.). Against the Current: Essays in the History of Ideas. Princeton University Press. p. 228. ISBN 9780691156101. It is a strange paradox that has thus made Hume one of the patron saints of German fideism and irrationalism. Yet so it was. Hamann's disciple, Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi, continues this line of thought; and according to one of the poshumous essays of late Arthur Lovejoy, Jacobi was one of the most widely read thinkers of this time both in Germany and outside it, it is not a matter for surprise that his views entered the current of German and French philosophical intuitivism, which fed various streams of modern vitalism, irrationalism and existentialism.
  14. ^ Lukács 1953, "Chapter II. The founding of irrationalism in the period between two revolutions (1789-1848)", p. 95-191
  15. ^ Carver, Terrell (1989). Friedrich Engels:His Life and Thought. Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 66–87. ISBN 9781349204038.
  16. ^ Windelband, Wilhelm (1895). "43. The Metaphysics of the Irrational". A History of Philosophy with Especial Reference to the Formation and Development of Its Problems and Conceptions. Harvard University: Macmillan and Company.
  17. ^ a b Rockmore, I. (2012-12-06). Lukács Today: Essays in Marxist Philosophy. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 5. ISBN 9789400928978.
  18. ^ Edoardo Sanguineti, Lettere Italiane, vol. 11, No. 1 (Gennaio-Marzo 1959), pp. 57-88, Casa Editrice Leo S. Olschki s.r.l.
  19. ^ Encyclopedia of Italian Literary Studies. Taylor & Francis. December 26, 2006. p. 2031. ISBN 9781135455309.
  20. ^ Woods, Roger (1996-03-25). The Conservative Revolution in the Weimar Republic. Springer. p. 66. ISBN 9780230375857.
  21. ^ Spengler, Oswald (1932). Politische Schriften. Volksausgabe. pp. 83–86.
  22. ^ (See Discussion on 20th century Irrationalism)
  23. ^ « Irrationalisme », Grand Larousse Encyclopédique, Paris, Larousse, 1960-1964.
  24. ^ Mattingly, James, ed. (October 22, 2022):
    "Irrationalism argues in favor of two theses in opposition to SR [scientific rationalism]. First, irrationalism claims that intuition, instinct, feeling, or faith, rather than reason the sources of human knowledge (epistemological irrationalism). Second, irrationalism holds that the universe is governed by irratonal forces (ontological irrationalism) contrast, SR asserts that reason (and not intuition, instinct, or faith) is the mental basis for scientific knowledge. Irrationalism, according to SR, is a philosophy that seeks reasons to justify irrationality, which is a contradiction on its own terms. On the other hand, and contrary to ontological irrationalism, SR asserts that the assumption that nature and culture are Irrational has been largely refuted by the advancement of science. All of these arguments can also be said about the differences between SR and intuitionism."
  25. ^ Garelick, Hebert M. (December 6, 2012) [July 31, 1971]. Modes of Irrationality: Preface to a Theory of Knowledge. Springer Netherlands. ISBN 9789401030304.
  26. ^ Nicola, Ubaldo (2005). Atlante illustrato di filosofia [Illustrated Atlas of Philosophy] (in Italian). Giunti Editore. p. 460. ISBN 978-8809041929.
  27. ^ Peters, M. (2014-12-03). Schopenhauer and Adorno on Bodily Suffering: A Comparative Analysis. Springer. ISBN 9781137412171.
  28. ^ Lukács 1953, "Chapter III. Nietzsche as founder of irrationalism in the imperialist period"
  29. ^ Russell, Bertrand (2004) [1945]. A History of Western Philosophy, and Its Connection with Political and Social Circumstances from the Earliest Times to the Present Day. Taylor & Francis. p. 716. ISBN 9781134343669.
  30. ^ Nietzsche, Friedrich (1886). Jenseits von Gut und Böse. Leipzig: C. G. Naumann.
  31. ^ Lukács 1953, "Chapter V. Neo-Hegelianism", p. 547-584
  32. ^ Duignan, Encyclopædia Britannica;
    "In existentialism, Søren Kierkegaard, Jean-Paul Sartre, and Albert Camus all despaired of making sense out of an incoherent world; and each chose his own alternative to reason—the leap of faith, radical freedom, and heroic revolt, respectively."
  33. ^ M. Heidegger, La sentenza di Nietzsche «Dio è morto», in Sentieri interrotti, La Nuova Italia, Firenze 1979, p.246 ASIN: B0799Q4972
  34. ^ Mallach, Alan (November 30, 2007). "Gabriele D'Annunzio & the New Generation". The Autumn of Italian Opera: From Verismo to Modernism, 1890-1915. Northeastern University Press. p. 303. ISBN 9781555536831. [D'Annunzio's] discovery of Nietzsche was to do more than simply fuel his already excessive egomania. While his principal English-language biographer has writes that "the German thinker's ideas simply gave an impersonal, abstract, or theoretical justification to the self-centered behavior patterns and attitudes which D'Annunzio had adopted spontaneously since the age of 15," their significance was far greater. They provided Annunzio with the framework to inflate personal predilection into a program of cultural politics, in which music, as the archetypal art forun of the Italian people, would play a central role.
    The evolution of his self-proclaimed persona as Nietzhchean über-mensch from the personal to the artistic sphere is traced by his novels from il pionere to il fuoco all of which are organized around a central quasi-autobiographical figure.
  35. ^ The Macmillan Dictionary of Biography. Palgrave Macmillan UK. June 18, 1981. p. 211. ISBN 9781349049158. D'Annuzio, Gabriele (1868-1938) [...] His first poems, Primo vere, were published 1879 and prose continuation Terra Vergine appeared 1882, as did Canto Nuovo, followed in 1889 by an autobiographical novel Il Piacere.
  36. ^ The Encyclopedia of the Novel. Wiley. February 11, 2014. p. 347. ISBN 9781118779071. D'Annuzio published his first novel, Il piacere (The Child of Pleasure), in 1889. Andrea Sperelli, the protagonist, feels that life is an artistic creation of one's own making.[...] His passion is for juxtaposing a variety of aesthetic stimuli in order to observe the effects on himself and on others. Il piacere is a celebration of artistic genius and its right to supersede bourgeois rationalism; it is also highly autobiographical. D'Annuzio lived his life very much along the lines of the characters of his many novels,...
  37. ^ Diethe, Carol (December 19, 2013). Historical Dictionary of Nietzscheanism. p. 46. ISBN 9780810880320.
  38. ^ Salvatore Cingari, Benedetto Croce e la crisi della civiltà europea, p. 329, Rubbettino, Catanzaro 2003, IBSN: 9788849806212
  39. ^ Lista, Giovanni (1986). Futurism. University of Michigan: Universe Books, New York. p. 4-5. ISBN 978-0-87663-500-1.
  40. ^ Bondanella, Peter; Bondanella, Julia Conway (March 18, 1999). Cassell Dictionary Italian Literature. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 241. ISBN 9781441150752. Futurist aesthetics has its roots in the anticonformism and irrationalism that permeated literature, the arts (symbolism, impressionism, cubism) and philosophy Nietzche, Bergson, Croce) at the turn of the century, as well as in the new developments of science and technology.
  41. ^ D'Errico, Stefano (May 7, 2007). Anarchismo e politica nel problemismo e nella critica all'anarchismo del ventesimo secolo [Anarchism and politics in the problematicism and criticism of anarchism of the twentieth century] (in Italian). Mimesis. p. 226. ISBN 978-8884835277.
  42. ^ Kleiner, Fred S.; Mamiya, Christin J. (March 17, 2004). Gardner's Art Through the Ages (12 ed.). Thomson Wadsworth. ISBN 978-0155050907.
  43. ^ Bengtsson, Jan Olof (2006). The Worldview of Personalism: Origins and Early Development. OUP Oxford. p. 276. ISBN 9780191538094.
  44. ^ a b Lukács, "Chapter IV. Vitalism (Lebensphilosophie) in Imperialist Germany, 4. War and Post-War Period (Spengler)"
  45. ^ Zafirovski, Milan (April 12, 2023). It Did Happen Here: The Rise of Fascism in Contemporary Society. Brill. p. 112-113. ISBN 9789004538573.
  46. ^ Horowitz, Irving Louis (September 10, 2009). Radicalism and the Revolt Against Reason (Routledge Revivals): The Social Theories of Georges Sorel with a Translation of His Essay on the Decomposition of Marxism. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9781135228286.
  47. ^ Rouanet, S. P. (January 1, 1964). "Irrationalism and Myth in Georges Sorel". The Review of Politics. 26 (1). Cambridge University Press: 44–69. doi:10.1017/S0034670500006768. JSTOR 1405866. Retrieved October 7, 2024.
  48. ^ Schupmann, Benjamin A. (2017). Carl Schmitt's State and Constitutional Theory: A Critical Analysis. Oxford University Press. p. 51. ISBN 9780198791614. [Carl Schmitt] believed this process had peaked with Georges Sorel, who politicized philosophical irrationalism.
  49. ^ Goodman, Russell B., ed. (2005). "Ethical Basis of Metaphysics". Pragmatism: Critical Concepts in Philosophy. Vol. 1. Routledge. ISBN 9780415288460.
  50. ^ Litowitz, Douglas E. (1997). "Derrida: Borrowing (Illictly?) from Plato and Kant". Postmodern Philosophy and Law. University Press of Kansas. p. 87-89. ISBN 9780700608577.
  51. ^ Elena Zamorani, Freud e la psicanalisi in AA. VV., Storia del pensiero filosofico e scientifico dall'Ottocento al Novecento, sezione settima, Lo sviluppo della razionalità scientifica e i suoi riflessi sulla filosofia, prima edizione ottobre 1971, Aldo Garzanti editore s.p.a.(s.l.), voll. 9, vol. 5°, pagg. 712 - 713
  52. ^ Hirsig, René (1974). Menschliches Konformitätsverhalten ― am Computer simuliert: Modell eines Dynamischen Prozesses aus dem Arbeitsgebiet der Verhaltenswissenschaft [Human Conformity Behavior ― Simulated on the Computer: Model of a Dynamic Process from the Field of Behavioral Science] (in German). Birkhäuser. ISBN 9783764307127.
  53. ^ Lukács, 1953, "Chapter IV. Vitalism (Lebensphilosophie) in Imperialist Germany."
  54. ^ Enciclopedia Garzanti di filosofia (1981), Chapter: "ibidem". ASIN: B0000ECOO0
  55. ^ Popper, Karl (July 11, 2002) [1945]. The Open Society and Its Enemies. Vol. 2 (1 ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0415278423.
  56. ^ Bentley, T. R. (1966). Philosophical Irrationalism and Italian Fascism. (n.p.): (n.p.).
  57. ^ «The materialization of irrationalism in collective phenomena is for Croce "totalitarianism", a term that includes communism, fascism and racism, that is, every ideology that presents itself as universal without individualization» ITALIA CONTEMPORANEA n. 149. Dicembre 1982.: Istituto Nazionale Storia Movimento Liberazione in Italia. Published by Franco Angeli, Milano, 1982, page 66
  58. ^ Wroe, David (19 January 2010). "'Criminal' manipulation of Nietzsche by sister to make him look anti-Semitic". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 2 July 2013. Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche, who went on to become a prominent supporter of Adolf Hitler, systematically falsified her brother's works and letters, according to the Nietzsche Encyclopedia [...] When she died in 1935, Hitler attended her funeral.
  59. ^ Enciclopedia Garzanti di Filosofia, Chapter: "Irrazionalismo", ISBN 978-8811504603
  60. ^ Blamires, Cyprian; Jackson, Paul. World Fascism: A Historical Encyclopedia: Volume 1. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, Inc, 2006, p. 628.
  61. ^ Cacciatore, Fortunato Maria (2005). Indagini su Oswald Spengler [Investigations on Oswald Spengler] (in Italian). Rubbettino. p. 14. ISBN 9788849813753.
  62. ^ Lukács, 1953, "Chapter IV. Vitalism (Lebensphilosophie) in Imperialist Germany." Page 531.
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