Cerastes cerastes, commonly known as the Saharan horned viper[4] or the desert horned viper,[5] is a venomous species of viper native to the deserts of Northern Africa and parts of the Arabian Peninsula and Levant. It is often easily recognized by the presence of a pair of supraocular "horns", although hornless individuals do occur.[4] Three subspecies have been described.
| Cerastes cerastes Temporal range: Pleistocene-recent[1]
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Scientific classification 
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| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Reptilia |
| Order: | Squamata |
| Suborder: | Serpentes |
| Family: | Viperidae |
| Genus: | Cerastes |
| Species: | C. cerastes
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| Binomial name | |
| Cerastes cerastes | |
| Synonyms[3] | |
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Description
editThe average total length (body and tail) is 30–60 cm (12–24 in), with a maximum total length of 85 cm (33 in). Females are larger than males.[4]
One of the most distinctive characteristics of this species is the presence of supraorbital "horns", one over each eye. However, these may be reduced in size or absent (see genus Cerastes).[4] The eyes are prominent and set on the sides of the head.[6] There is significant sexual dimorphism, with males having larger heads and larger eyes than females. Compared to C. gasperettii, the relative head size of C. cerastes is larger and there is a greater frequency of horned individuals (13% versus 48%, respectively).[4][7]
The colour pattern consists of a yellowish, pale grey, pinkish, reddish or pale brown ground colour, which almost always matches the substrate colour where the animal is found. Dorsally, a series of dark, semi-rectangular blotches runs the length of the body. These blotches may or may not be fused into crossbars. The belly is white. The tail, which may have a black tip, is usually thin.[4][6]
Common names
editCommon names of this species include desert sidewinding horned viper,[8] Saharan horned viper,[4] horned s,[5] Sahara horned viper,[6] desert horned viper, North African horned viper,[9] African desert horned viper, greater cerastes,[10] asp and horned viper.[11] In Egypt, it is called el-ṭorîsha (حية الطريشة); in Libya, it is called um-Goron (ام قرون).
Distribution and habitat
editThe snake is common in Iraq but is also found in Syria, Saudi Arabia, Palestine, Yemen, Jordan, Israel, Qatar, Mauritania, Morocco and Kuwait. They can also be found in parts of North Africa including Libya, Egypt, and Sudan.
Originally, the type locality was listed only as "Oriente." However, Flower (1933) proposed "Egypt" by way of clarification.[3]
These snakes favor dry, sandy areas with sparse rock outcroppings, and tend to avoid coarse sand. Occasionally they are found around oases, and up to an altitude of 1,500 metres (4,900 ft). Cooler temperatures, with annual averages of 20 °C (68 °F) or less, are preferred.[4]
Behavior
editThey typically move by sidewinding, during which they press their weight into the sand or soil, leaving whole-body impressions. Often, it is even possible to use these impressions to make ventral scale counts. They have a reasonably placid temperament, but if threatened, they may assume a C-shaped posture and rapidly rub their coils together. Because they have strongly keeled scales, this rubbing produces a rasping noise, similar to the sound produced by snakes of the genus Echis. In the wild, they are typically ambush predators, lying submerged in sand adjacent to rocks or under vegetation. The diet of this carnivorous species consists primarily of small rodents, geckos, birds, and a variety of lizards.[12] These vipers are also known to eat jerboas, yellow wagtails, and chiffchaffs.[13] C. cerastes has been known to travel long distances at night in search of prey.[14] When approached, they strike very rapidly, holding on to the captured prey until the venom takes effect.[15]
Reproduction
editIn captivity, mating was observed in April and always occurred while the animals were buried in the sand.[4] This species is oviparous, laying 8–23 eggs that hatch after 50 to 80 days of incubation. The eggs are laid under rocks and in abandoned rodent burrows. The hatchlings measure 12–15 cm (about 5–6 inches) in total length.[6]
Venom
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Cerastes cerastes venom is reported to be similar in action to Echis venom.[4] Envenomation usually causes swelling, haemorrhage, necrosis, nausea, vomiting, and haematuria. A high phospholipase A2 content may cause cardiotoxicity and myotoxicity.[6] Studies of venom from both C. cerastes and C. vipera list a total of eight venom fractions, the most powerful of which has haemorrhagic activity. Venom yields vary, with ranges of 19–27 mg to 100 mg of dried venom being reported.[4] For venom toxicity, Brown (1973) gives LD50 values of 0.4 mg/kg IV and 3.0 mg/kg SC.[9] An estimated lethal dose for humans is 40–50 mg.[6]
Taxonomy
editA number of subspecies have been described:[4]
- Cerastes cerastes hoofieni Werner & Sivan, 1999 – Saudi Arabia.
- Cerastes cerastes karlhartli Sochurek, 1974 – Egyptian horned viper – southeast Egypt and Sinai Peninsula.
- Cerastes cerastes mutila Domergue, 1901 – Algerian horned viper – southwest Algeria, Morocco.
Previously, C. gasperettii was also regarded as a subspecies of C. cerastes.[4]
References
edit- ^ Margarida Isabel Oliveira Barros. "Reconstructing the evolutionary history of desert-adapted Cerastes vipers in North Africa and the Arabian Peninsula" (PDF) (in Portuguese and English). University of Porto.
- ^ Wagner, P.; Wilms, T.; Niagate, B.; Joger, U.; Geniez, P.; Mateo, J.A.; El Mouden, E.H.; Slimani, T.; Nouira, M.S.; Baha El Din, S.; Busais, S.M.S.; Al Jumaily, M.M. (2021). "Cerastes cerastes". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2021: e.T197465A2486896. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-3.RLTS.T197465A2486896.en. Retrieved 21 February 2022.
- ^ a b McDiarmid RW, Campbell JA, Touré T. (1999). Snake Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference, Volume 1. Washington, District of Columbia: Herpetologists' League. ISBN 1-893777-01-4.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Mallow D, Ludwig D, Nilson G. (2003). True Vipers: Natural History and Toxinology of Old World Vipers. Malabar, Florida: Krieger Publishing Company. ISBN 0-89464-877-2.
- ^ a b Mehrtens JM. (1987). Living Snakes of the World in Color. New York: Sterling Publishers. ISBN 0-8069-6460-X.
- ^ a b c d e f Spawls S, Branch B. (1995). The Dangerous Snakes of Africa. Dubai: Ralph Curtis Books. Oriental Press. ISBN 0-88359-029-8.
- ^ Werner YL, Verdier A, Rosenman D, Sivan N. 1991. Systematics and Zoogeography of Cerastes (Ophidia: Viperidae) in the Levant: 1. Distinguishing Arabian from African "Cerastes cerastes". The Snake 23: 90–100.
- ^ Stevens, Austin (2005). SNAKEMASTER In Search of the Snake that Killed Cleopatra. [DVD] Michael Davies, USA: Discovery Communications, Inc.
- ^ a b Brown JH. (1973). Toxicology and Pharmacology of Venoms from Poisonous Snakes. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas. LCCCN 73–229. ISBN 0-398-02808-7.
- ^ U.S. Navy. (1991). Poisonous Snakes of the World. New York: Dover Publications Inc. (United States Government Reprint). ISBN 0-486-26629-X.
- ^ Ditmars RL. (1933). Reptiles of the World. Revised Edition. New York: The MacMillan Company.
- ^ "Cerastes cerastes (Desert Horned Viper)". Animal Diversity Web.
- ^ "Cerastes cerastes (Desert Horned Viper)". Animal Diversity Web.
- ^ "Cerastes cerastes (Desert Horned Viper)". Animal Diversity Web.
- ^ Photo sequence of Cerastes cerastes feeding in the wild (Gilf Kebir, Egypt, 27 October 2004) at FJ Expeditions accessed 19 October 2013
Further reading
edit- Boulenger GA. 1896. Catalogue of the Snakes in the British Museum (Natural History). Volume III., Containing the...Viperidæ. London: Trustees of the British Museum (Natural History). (Taylor and Francis, printers). xiv + 727 pp. + Plates I.- XXV. (Cerastes cornutus, pp. 502–503).
- Calmette A. 1907. Les venins, les animaux venimeux et la serotherapie antivenimeuse. In: Bucherl W. editor. 1967. Venomous Animals and Their Venoms. Vol. I. Paris: Masson. 233 pp.
- Mohamed AH; Kamel A; Ayobe MH (1969). "Studies of phospholipase A and B activities of Egyptian snake venoms and a scorpion venom". Toxicon. 6: 293–988.
- Joger U. (1984). Dr. Ludwig Reichert (ed.). The Venomous Snakes of the Near and Middle East. Wiesbaden: Verlag.
- Labib RS; Malim HY; Farag NW (1979). "Fractionation of Cerastes cerastes and Cerastes vipera snake venoms by gel filtration and identification of some enzymatic and biological activities". Toxicon. 17: 337–345.
- Labib RS; Azab MH; Farag NW (1981). "Effects of Cerastes cerastes (Egyptian sand viper) snake venoms on blood coagulation: separation of coagulant and anticoagulant factors and their correlation with arginineesterase protease activities". Toxicon. 19: 85–94.
- Labib RS; Azab ER; Farag NW (1981). "Proteases of Cerastes cerastes and Cerastes vipera snake venoms". Toxicon. 19: 73–83.
- Linnaeus C. 1758. Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio Decima, Reformata. Stockholm: L. Salvius. 824 pp. (Coluber cerastes, p. 217).
- Schneemann M; Cathomas R; Laidlaw ST; El Nahas AM; Theakston RDG; Warrell DA (2004). "Life-threatening envenoming by the Saharan horned viper (Cerastes cerastes) causing micro-angiopathic haemolysis, coagulopathy and acute renal failure: clinical cases and review". Association of Physicians. QJM. 97 (11): 717–727. Archived from the original on 15 April 2013. Retrieved 9 March 2007.
- Schnurrenburger H. (1959). "Observations on behavior in two Libyan species of viperine snake". Herpetologica. 15 (70–2).
External links
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- Cerastes cerastes at the Reptarium.cz Reptile Database. Accessed 2 August 2007.
- Exceptional photo sequence of Cerastes cerastes feeding in the wild at FJ Expeditions taken on 27 October 2004. Accessed 19 October 2013.
- Sand viper page at Plumed-serpent.com. Accessed 30 July 2006.
- Video of Cerastes cerastes on YouTube. Accessed 31 May 2007.
Aziz Subach; Arik Dorfman; Bar Avidov; Adi Domer; Yehonatan Samocha; Inon Scharf (2022). "Foraging behaviour, habitat use and population size of the desert horned viper in the Negev desert". Royal Society Open Science. doi:10.1098/rsos.220326. PMC 9240687.
Dorfman, A.; Subach, A.; Scharf, I. (2023). "Snakes on a slope: strong anti-gravitactic responses and differential habitat use in the Saharan horned viper (Cerastes cerastes) in the Negev desert". Royal Society Open Science. 10 (3). doi:10.1098/rsos.221652. PMC 10031405.
Aziz Subach; Bar Avidov; Arik Dorfman; Inon Scharf. Movement ecology and foraging behavior of the Saharan horned viper in the Negev Desert – an outline for research – via ResearchGate.