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Kitab-ı Bahriye

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The Kitab-ı Bahriye (كتاب بحرية), or Book of the Sea, is a navigational guide written by Ottoman cartographer, corsair, and captain Piri Reis.[1][2] After the death of his uncle Kemal Reis,[3] Piri Reis compiled navigational charts and notes into the most detailed portolan atlas in existence.[4][5] There are two versions of the book.[2] The first version was composed between 1511 and 1521.[6][7] Both versions begin with a preface and were dedicated to the sultan Suleiman the Magnificent.[8]

Kitâb-ı Bahriye
كتاب بحرية
Topkapı Palace
A copy open to the page on Corsica
Date1521, 1526
Place of originGallipoli, Ottoman Empire
Language(s)Ottoman Turkish
Author(s)Piri Reis
Dedicated toSuleiman the Magnificent
MaterialPaper

The second version—completed by 1526—includes a longer introduction written in verse.[2] It offers information on storms, winds, navigating with a compass, navigating by the stars, reading portolan charts, and the oceans.[8] It includes information on recent Portuguese and Spanish voyages including the voyages of Christopher Columbus to the Americas and Vasco da Gama's discovery of a sea route to India.[2] It offers the first detailed Ottoman description of the Indian Ocean, with special attention given to Hormuz.[9][2]

The main part of both versions is a nautical atlas to the Mediterranean Sea. Separate chapters cover different locations with corresponding portolan charts.[8] There are 130 chapters in the first version and 210 in the second.[8] Piri Reis says he composed an atlas with separate maps and charts because the details in any single map are limited by the space available.[8] The chapters start at the Dardanelles and move counter-clockwise around the Mediterranean.[10] The Kitab-ı Bahriye combines information from a range of sources and Piri Reis' personal experience. The coast of North Africa relies little on outside sources.[11] The book is also one of the few primary sources of information on Piri Reis.[12][13] Its maps have compass roses indicating North for each page.[14][5] Scale is indicated only in the textual descriptions, not with scale bars.[5] Standard portolan symbols indicate hazards, like dots for shallow water and crosses for rocks.[14] Written when Ottoman sailors relied on oar-driven galleys and galiots, the Kitab-ı Bahriye reflects their needs and capabilities. It gives information on coastal waters, safe harbors, hazards, and sources of fresh water.[15]

The known surviving manuscripts are all copies created beginning in the later 1500s.[16] The book achieved fame only after the death of its author.[17] At least some portion of the book has been translated into English, modern Turkish, Greek, French, German, and Italian.[18]

History

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Djerba on the North African coast

From an early age, Piri Reis sailed with his uncle Kemal Reis, first as a corsair, and later in the Ottoman Navy.[19][20] After his uncle died in 1511, Piri Reis returned to his hometown, Gallipoli. He created a world map in 1513 and likely began compiling the notes and charts that would form the basis of the Kitab-ı Bahriye.[3] Piri Reis rejoined the Ottoman Navy for the Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–1517) and presented the world map to Selim I in 1517.[21][22] In the following decade, Piri Reis completed two versions of the Kitab-ı Bahriye and a second world map.[3]

Both versions of the Kitab-ı Bahriye begin with a dedication to Suleiman the Magnificent. When Suleiman began his reign in 1520, Ottoman craftsmen offered exemplars of their work as gifts.[8][23] The Kitab-ı Bahriye's preface reads, "The reason for compiling this book is that a number of master craftsmen have now brought forward offerings from their various trades to the auspicious threshold and felicitous gate of His Majesty the World-protecting Emperor, so as to gain high status in society and attain name and renown through the matchless favor of that well-favored sovereign."[23] There's no evidence that the first version received a positive or enthusiastic response from the sultan.[23]

The second version was drafted after Piri Reis took the Ottoman Grand Vizier Pargalı İbrahim Pasha to Egypt.[23][24] When putting down Hain Ahmed Pasha's rebellion in Egypt, Ibrahim rode aboard the navy's flagship, commanded by Piri Reis.[21] During the trip, they took shelter at Rhodes to wait out a storm. They discussed the original Kitab-ı Bahriye and other charts on the ship.[13] Ibrahim commissioned Piri Reis to create an expanded version of the Kitab-ı Bahriye.[2] He did so and presented it to the Sultan by 1526.[2]

Whenever I fell into distress at sea, I always consulted a book. The [sailing] directions that I had written down in [this] book of mine amply demonstrated the excellence of my expertise. His excellency the great Pasha saw how my book was being put to use all the time. He understood that there was something valuable there, and he [expressed] a wish to examine it. When it was brought to him he looked at its every detail and [realized] how I was plotting the course with it. He thus grasped its gist…; he knew that there was accuracy, mastery in the art of navigation [contained in my book]… [and] he showed esteem for this slave of his as a result. … He said, ‘You are a very able man, and there is much excellence in your character. The entire configuration of the sea has become known [to you]: none of its spots are hidden from you. I wish that you make all of it manifest, and that you be remembered by it until doomsday. You should polish up this book well, all of it, so that it may be much used… Moreover, this book is very appealing, fit for being preserved in libraries. Polish it up and bring it without fail, so that we may present it to the sovereign of the world.’

— Piri Reis, Kitab-ı Bahriye (1526), preface, Svat Soucek (trans.) [25]

The details in a portolan chart were limited by the space available on the map. Piri Reis says this is why he used separate maps and prose descriptions.[8] The books combine information from a range of sources and his personal experience. The areas that most reflect Piri Reis' direct experiences are the coasts of North Africa.[11] Tunisia is likely drawn from personal observations. Djerba, in particular, includes greater detail than the highly-regarded maps Giacomo Gastaldi composed in sixteenth-century Italy.[26]

There is no evidence that the Kitab-ı Bahriye circulated outside of the royal palace prior to 1550.[17] From 1560 to 1600, many copies were created and spread. At least 15 surviving manuscripts are from this period.[17] The total number of copies may have reached into the hundreds.[17] There was a greater demand for Turkish geographical texts in the late sixteenth century than during the life of Piri Reis.[17]

Contents

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Venice, second version, Istanbul University Library Turkey, manuscript Türkçe 6605[27]

The Kitab-ı Bahriye is a portolan atlas that offered the most detailed navigational guide to the Mediterranean Sea for its time.[3][28] Like portolan maps, the Kitab-ı Bahriye uses compass roses for navigation, rather than lines of longitude and latitude.[14] Arrows on each chart indicate North. There are no visual scale bars; distances are explained in the prose.[5] The maps use standard symbols like dots for shallow water and crosses for rocks.[14] Compared to inscriptions on contemporary maps, the book is highly personal and anecdotal.[14]

The isolario genre was a major influence on Piri Reis. Isolarios were books with written descriptions and maps. Typically written for amusement, they contained minimal guidance on navigation and focused on history and topography. An isolario—like Benedetto Bordone's The Book of Islands compiled in Venice around the same time as the Kitab-ı Bahriye—was divided into chapters with maps of the locations described.[29] Historian Thomas Day Goodrich has argued that the Kitab-ı Bahriye introduced the technique of referring to the maps from within the book's text. Prose portions of the Kitab-ı Bahriye refer the reader to specific maps for details or a better understanding of the geography.[5]

The Kitab-ı Bahriye's charts begin at the Dardanelles strait and move counter-clockwise around the Mediterranean.[10] Like other Ottoman atlases, the Kitab-ı Bahriye focuses more on warfare and raiding than trade routes.[9] Piri Reis sailed, raided, and fought as a ghazi and corsair, so he wrote from this perspective.[9]

The Kitab-ı Bahriye is a practical navigation guide, and the sixteenth-century Ottoman fleet relied mainly on galleys and galiots. These ships could be propelled by sails or oars.[30] The Kitab-ı Bahriye reflects their capabilities and is written for a captain making a series of short coastal voyages.[31] The length of galleys combined with their low freeboard made them quick but susceptible to storms and high winds.[32] The Kitab-ı Bahriye gives information on coastal waters, hazards, and safe harbors.[31] The most commonly depicted watercraft is the galley, but the Kitab-ı Bahriye also frequently mentions sandals, a type of small rowing boat. A sandal could be carried or pulled by a galley and rowed to shore for scouting or gathering fresh water.[29] Galleys needed to frequently stop for supplies, and the Kitab-ı Bahriye notes where fresh water can be found.[32] For example, in the section covering the Galite Islands, the Kitab-ı Bahriye notes the dangers posed by southern winds, the availability of wild goats, and the quality of the fresh water which Piri Reis compares in flavor to rose water.[33]

Ottoman naval warfare during the period was often amphibious, involving the transport of troops from land under Ottoman control.[34] The Kitab-ı Bahriye gives details about land-based fortifications, including their current condition.[34] A 2020 analysis of two copies found each depicted over 100 fortified towns, over 800 fortresses, about 390 towers, just over 100 ruins, 148 ports, and about 200 fresh-water springs.[35] The detailed section on Venice explains how the city—built on piles in a lagoon—lacked drinking water and had to ship it in from rivers on the mainland.[36]

The Kitab-ı Bahriye is one of the few sources of biographical information on Piri Reis.[37] Some copies have updated maps and depict additional areas not covered in the text like the Black Sea.[38][39] The book includes first-hand information from Piri Reis' own sailing and his early experiences with his uncle in the Western Mediterranean.[40] It contains autobiographic information up to 1526, the year it was presented to the sultan.[13]

Versions

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First version, Sicily, Bibliothèque nationale manuscript turc 220, copied late sixteenth or seventeenth century[27]
 
Second version, Sicily, Walters manuscript, copied in the 17th century[27]

Piri Reis produced two versions of the book, an initial 1521 version with 130 chapters and a second 1526 version with 210 chapters.[8] Many copies of both versions have been preserved, but not the originals.[8] Over 40 manuscripts—produced from the late 1500s to the 1700s—survive today, 26 in Istanbul alone. The number of maps varies, and a few have no maps at all. Three copies have no text and only maps.[27] The number of charts in surviving manuscripts varies as some contain additional charts added by copyists.[8] Some later copies have updated maps and depict additional places like the Black Sea which is not covered in the text.[38][39] Across the surviving manuscripts, there are over 5700 total maps.[27] According to historian Thomas Day Goodrich, there are more hand-drawn manuscript maps of Piri Reis' work than any other cartographer.[5]

The original version is less artistic but more practical; it saw use by later sailors. The second version includes more detailed maps decorated with Ottoman miniatures.[41] The first version begins with a standard Ottoman introduction offering praise to Allah and Muhammad along with an explanation of the book's purpose.[42] The 1526 version includes a longer introduction and an added epilogue, both written in verse.[8] The longer preface adds details about recent Portuguese and Spanish voyages around Africa and to the Americas, as well as the first detailed Ottoman description of the Indian Ocean. It gives special attention to Hormuz, a strategically valuable port at the entrance to the Persian Gulf.[9][2] The description of the Americas includes fantastical hearsay; it describes natives with massive flat faces and the width of an entire hand between their eyes. It also includes Piri Reis' own experiences taking exotic American items from European sailors.[43] The epilogue covers how the second version resulted from discussions with Ibrahim Pasha.[8]

Most extant manuscripts are luxury items, but a few show signs of use at sea.[44] One copy at Kiel University has water stains and marginal notes written by an anonymous mariner.[5] The copies of the more practical 1521 version identify the copyists and the place of production. The copies of the more artistic 1526 version leave out the identity of the copyists.[41] Most copies of the second version were likely created by the miniaturists working in Istanbul during the 1500s and 1600s.[39]

Study

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At least some portion of the Kitab-ı Bahriye has been translated into German, French, English, Italian, and Greek.[45] Scholarly analysis of the book began after the French translation by Denis Dominique Cardonne in 1765.[46] A facsimile of the second version was published in 1935 by the Turkish Historical Society with a complete historical introduction.[44] It was based on the Ayasofya manuscript at the Süleymaniye Library in Istanbul.[47] In 1910, Sachau published a study of the Sicily section.[46] Orientalist Paul E. Kahle began to translate and study a copy of the first version in the 1920s.[46] Uriel Heyd found in a 1956 study that across the many copies "place-names, in particular, were distorted by copyists". Later studies by Jean-Louis Bacqué-Grammont, Dimitris Loupis, and Svat Soucek have sought to create a standard reading of the placenames across the maps.[46]

The Turkish Ministry of Culture and Tourism published a 4-volume edition of the book in 1988.[46][7] It includes a full-color, photographic facsimile of the manuscript, a transliteration from the original Arabic script into the Turkish alphabet, a translation into modern Turkish, and a translation into English.[7]

Manuscripts

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Copies of the Kitab-ı Bahriye are found in libraries in Istanbul and in some of the major libraries in Europe, besides one copy known to be held privately in the USA (Walters Art Museum).[7][48][27]

First version (1521) copies
Place Institution Manuscript Maps Date Copyist
Berlin, from Tübingen Berlin State Library, from University of Tübingen Ms. Or. Fol. 4133
—
 1645
—
Bologna Bologna University Library Ms. Marsili 3612 105
—
—
Bologna Bologna University Library Ms. 3613 125 1569
—
Dresden Saxon State and University Library Dresden Ms. Eb 389 119 1554
—
Istanbul Istanbul Naval Museum No. 987 88
—
 Mehmed Seyyid
Istanbul Istanbul Naval Museum No. 990 134
—
—
Istanbul Köprülü Library, Fazıl Ahmed Paşa Ms. 172 123 1657
—
Istanbul Millet Yazma Eser Kütüphanesi [tr] Coğrafya 1 129
—
—
Istanbul Nuruosmaniye Library Ms. 2990 126 1654 Ahmed ibn Mustafa
Istanbul Nuruosmaniye Library Ms. 2997 124 1628 Mustafa ibn Muhammad Cündi
Istanbul Süleymaniye Library Ms. Aya Sofya 2605 133 1721 Muh. b. Kalgan and Muh. Sadık
Istanbul Süleymaniye Library Âşır Efendi 227 92
—
—
Istanbul Süleymaniye Library Ms. Aya Sofya 3161 125
—
—
Istanbul Süleymaniye Library Hamidiye 945 42 1554–1555 Ahmed ibn 'All ibn Mehmed
Istanbul Süleymaniye Library Hüsrev Paşa 272 127 1570
—
Istanbul Süleymaniye Library Yeni Cami 790 128 1551 Muhyiddin
Istanbul Topkapı Palace Ms. Baghdad 337 134 1574
—
Istanbul Istanbul University Library Türkçe 123/2 119
—
—
Kiel Kiel University Library Ms. Cod. Or. 34 51 1553–1600
—
London British Museum Ms. Oriental 4131 137 1600–1700
—
Oxford Bodleian Library Ms. D'Orville 543
—
 1587
—
Paris Bibliothèque nationale Suppl. Turc 220 122 1553–1700
—
Prague National Library of the Czech Republic XVIII A 308
—
—
—
Vienna Austrian National Library Ms. Cod. H.O. 130
—
—
—
 Originally in the private library of Sir Thomas Phillipps Ms. 3974 123 1718
—
Second version (1525) copies
Place Institution Manuscript Maps Date
Baltimore Walters Art Museum W.658 239 1600–1700
Berlin Berlin State Library Diez A. Fol. 57 50 1600–1700
Istanbul Atatürk Kitaplığı [tr] Belediye, Muallim Cevdet 30 226 1682
Istanbul Istanbul Naval Museum No. 988 239
—
Istanbul Istanbul Naval Museum No. 989 226
—
Istanbul Köprülü Library Ms. 171 117 1555
Istanbul Süleymaniye Library Ayasofya 2612 216 1574
Istanbul Topkapı Palace Ms. H. 642 215 1553–1600
Istanbul Topkapı Palace R. 1633 221 1600–1700
Istanbul Istanbul University Library Türkçe 6605 228
—
Kuwait Dar al Athar al Islamiyyah Ms. LNS. 75 131 1689
Paris Bibliothèque nationale Suppl. Turc 956 219 1553–1600
Variant copies
Place Institution Manuscript Maps Variation
Bologna University of Bologna Library Ms. Marsili 3609 204 Only maps, no text.
Istanbul Topkapı Palace B. 338 189 Only maps, no text.
London Khalili Collection of Islamic Art Ms. 718 119 Only maps, no text.
Istanbul Süleymaniye Library Hüsrev Paşa 264 0 Text only.
Istanbul Kandilli Observatory 340/2; f. 25b-69a 0 Text only.

Regional maps

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Notes

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  1. ^
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h Casale 2010, p. 37.
  3. ^ a b c d Lepore, Piccardi & Rombai 2013, p. 85.
  4. ^ Hepworth 2005, p. 73.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g Goodrich 2004, pt. 1.
  6. ^ Soucek 2013 gives 1520 as a completion date .
  7. ^ a b c d FSTC Research Team 2010, sec. 4.
  8. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Soucek 1992, p. 272.
  9. ^ a b c d Soucek 2013, p. 139.
  10. ^ a b İnan 1954, pp. 21–22.
  11. ^ a b Soucek 1992, pp. 277–279.
  12. ^ İnan 1954, pp. 15–17.
  13. ^ a b c İnan 1954, p. 15.
  14. ^ a b c d e Soucek 1992, p. 277.
  15. ^ Soucek 1992, pp. 273–274.
  16. ^ Goodrich 2004, Abstract.
  17. ^ a b c d e Casale 2010, p. 186.
  18. ^ Lepore, Piccardi & Rombai 2013, p. 86.
  19. ^ McIntosh 2000, p. 5.
  20. ^ Pedani 2015, pp. 319–320.
  21. ^ a b Casale 2010, p. 36.
  22. ^ Soucek 1992, p. 270.
  23. ^ a b c d Soucek 2013, p. 137.
  24. ^ Hess 1970, p. 1905.
  25. ^ Soucek 2013, p. 138.
  26. ^ Soucek 1992, p. 279.
  27. ^ a b c d e f Goodrich 2004, Appendix 1.
  28. ^ Soucek 2013, p. 135.
  29. ^ a b Soucek 1995, pp. 10–33.
  30. ^ Soucek 1992, pp. 266, 273–274.
  31. ^ a b Soucek 1992, p. 273.
  32. ^ a b Soucek 1992, p. 274.
  33. ^ FSTC Research Team 2010, sec. 6.
  34. ^ a b Soucek 1992, pp. 274–275.
  35. ^ Nemlioğlu Koca 2020.
  36. ^ Pedani 2015, p. 321.
  37. ^ Soucek 1992, p. 266.
  38. ^ a b Lepore, Piccardi & Rombai 2013, pp. 92–93.
  39. ^ a b c Soucek 1992, p. 276.
  40. ^ İnan 1954, p. 17.
  41. ^ a b Soucek 1992, p. 275.
  42. ^ Soucek 2013, p. 136.
  43. ^ İnan 1954, p. 21.
  44. ^ a b Soucek 2013, pp. 135–144.
  45. ^ Lepore, Piccardi & Rombai 2013, pp. 85–94.
  46. ^ a b c d e Goodrich 2004, pt. 2.
  47. ^ Goodrich 2004.
  48. ^ Soucek 1973, pp. 241–255.

References

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  • "W.658". Manuscripts. Baltimore: Walters Art Museum.
    • "W.658". Baltimore: Walters Art Museum – via Library of Congress.
    • "W.658". Baltimore: Walters Art Museum – via Wikimedia Commons.
  • "Suppl. Turc 220". Département des manuscrits. Paris: Bibliothèque nationale.
  • "Suppl. Turc 956". Département des manuscrits. Paris: Bibliothèque nationale.
  • "Ms. Dresd. Eb 389". Orientalische Handschrift. Dresden: Sächsische Landesbibliothek — Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek Dresden.
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