Ancient Jewish art, is art created by Jews in both the Land of Israel and in the Diaspora prior to the Middle Ages. It features symbolic or figurative motifs often influenced by biblical themes, religious symbols, and the dominant cultures of the time, including Egyptian, Hellenistic, and Roman art.

Ciborium of the Holy Ark of the synagogue of Doura Europos

During the Second Temple Period, Jewish decorative art followed the biblical prohibition against images, avoiding figurative or symbolic depictions. Motifs from Eastern Mediterranean art were used, but without human or animal figures, reflecting Torah injunctions and a resistance to Roman influence.[1]

In Late Antiquity, the biblical commandment avoidance of figurative or symbolic painting was gradually ignored in part due to the influence of Christianity. Symbols such as the Menorah served as both artistic as well as national symbols of Jewish identity, growing more acute after the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem.

Outline edit

In the Second Temple period, Jewish art, both in the Land of Israel and the diaspora, was characterized by a marked avoidance of figurative or symbolic motifs. Adhering to the Biblical commandment against creating graven images (Exodus 20:4; Deuteronomy 5:8), the predominant artistic themes were geometric, floral, and architectural. Symbols such as the menorah and the shewbread table were used, primarily as representations of priestly duties with figurative representations of symbols of the Temple initially resisted by religious authorities.[2] This approach was partly in response to Hellenistic rulers' efforts to impose idolatry, which threatened Jewish religion and culture.[3][4][5] On the other hand, Jewish Hellenistic factions adopted Greek influences to some extent and integrated figurative depictions into their architecture and statuary, as can be seen in such sites as the Tobiad estate in Iraq al-Amir.[6]

A significant shift occurred in Jewish artistic expression during Late Antiquity, when Jews began incorporating symbolic motifs in their synagogal and funerary art. This change was not only evident in the variety of contexts and localities but also in the diverse range of objects that featured these symbols. The repertoire of symbols, initially limited, expanded over time.[7][5][8]

This change in artistic expression was influenced by the rise of Christianity and its establishment as the official religion of the Roman Empire. The new religious landscape presented a challenge to Judaism, necessitating a shift in cultural representation. The Jews began to use specific symbols in their art as a means of expressing and affirming their Jewish identity. These symbols included the menorah, the shewbread table, the ark, ritual objects, and the conch. Originally part of the Temple rites, these symbols held significant meaning and became a prominent feature in Jewish art of the period. They served not only as religious symbols but also as emblems of national and communal identity.[9][10]

The menorah's evolution is understood as a key example of this transition. Initially a sign of priestly roles during the Second Temple period, the menorah transformed into a widely recognized symbol of Jewish identity after the Temple's destruction.[11][8][12]

Motifs edit

Menorah edit

See main article: Temple menorah

The menorah, originally described in the Bible as being a solid gold candelabrum with a central shaft and six branches extending from it, is mentioned first in the context of the Tabernacle (Exodus 25:31-40; 37:17-24), and was later used in the Temple of Jerusalem as part of the daily ritual. Even as the Second Temple stood, the image of the menorah was used in an ornamental context.[13]

As a concrete figurative symbol, the menorah first appeared during the second half of the first century BCE, and depictions increased gradually over time,[14] gaining particular prominence in the ornamentation of synagogues, places of residence, catacombs and ritual objects during the third and fourth centuries CE, both in Israel and in the diaspora.[15]

The first visual representations of the menorah appear on the coins of the last Hasmonean king Mattathias Antigonus (40-37 BCE). Additional depictions from the Second Temple Period include those on several plaster fragments from the Jewish Quarter of Jerusalem and a sundial found near the Tempe Mount, five incised menorahs on the eastern wall of Jason’s tomb in Jerusalem, two painted menorahs on the wall of a cistern in a refuge cave of Nahal Mikhmas, two ossuaries from Jerusalem and one ossuary from the Goliath family tomb at Jericho, and the famous depiction on the arch of Titus.[13][16] The “Darom” clay oil lamps from Judea have depictions of the menorah as well, though they are dated to the period between the destruction of the Temple (70 CE) and the Bar Kokhba revolt (135 CE).[17]

Remains of several free-standing Menorahs have been unearthed in the excavations of several ancient synagogues in Hammat Tiberias, Horvat Qoshet, Susiya, Ma’on, Eshtemoa, Meroth, Ein Gedi and the diasporan synagogue of Sardis. Save the Menorah from Ein Gedi which was made of bronze, the rest were largely made of stone, though it is possible that others originally made of metal were plundered and those made of wood did not survive due to decay.[18]

The most famous of menorah representations from late antiquity appear on synagogue mosaics, such as have been found in Hammat Tiberius, Bet Alpha, Sussiya, Na’aran, Huseifa, Bet Shean, Sepphoris, Ma’on, Hulda, Jericho, Gerasa and Ein Gedi, though their numbers on both public and domestic architectural elements such as lintels, chancel screens, capitals, columns, and others, ranging from the 2nd century and onwards, are much greater. These have been unearthed in locations such as Ashdod, Ashkelon, Capernaum, Ein Nashut, Eshtemoa, Fiq, Gaza, Hebron, Jericho, Jerusalem, Naveh, Qasrin, Susiya, Tiberias, and many others.[19]

Various theories for the meaning of the menorah depictions have been proposed, some of which suggest that it was a symbol of the heavenly spheres and God as the source of their light, others present it a sign of yearning for the Temple and hopes for its renewal or a counter-substitute for the Christian cross, though most probably the seven branches signified the seven days of the week,[20] while the Menorah served as a daily ritual calendar with an additional candle being lit every day.[21] Levine suggests that it is possible that the menorah's very ability to take on varied interpretations contributed to its popularity.[20]

In Late Antiquity, the menorah was a prominent symbol in diaspora synagogues, often found in various artistic forms. Inscriptions from Side in Pamphylia and Sardis mention donations of menorahs to these synagogues.[8][22]

Menoroth were painted in the wall paintings at the Dura Europos synaoguge. Mosaics with menorahs were also discovered in diaspora locations such as Apaemea, Bova Marina, Hamam-Lif, and Philippopolis. Reliefs, engravings and incisions featuring menorahs were found at Ostia, Priene, Sardis and Stobi. Menoroth were also found on architectural and stone fragmenets at Acmonia, Aphordisias, Athens, Bithynion-Caludiopolis, Corinth, Nicaea, Pergamon, Porto (Italy) and Tarragona.[23][22]

Shewbread Table edit

The shewbread table, a key Temple vessel, is depicted in various Jewish art forms. Described in Exodus as a golden table for shewbread, it's one of three central Temple vessels. Its earliest representations include coins from Mattathias Antigonus's reign (40-37 BCE) and a Jerusalem house's plastered wall. In diaspora art, the shewbread table appears notably on the Arch of Titus, depicted as a heavy, rectangular table with animal feet and two cups on top, carried by eight bearers. Additionally, two trumpets are shown crossed on it. At Dura Europos, a gold, round table with molded legs is painted, resembling three-legged stone tables from Second Temple Jerusalem. This round table style also appears in the Callistus catacomb. There's debate among scholars about its depiction on Bar Kokhba coins and in the Dura synagogue. After the Second Temple period, its appearances are rare but notable, like in the Qasrin synagogue lintel, a mosaic in a fifth-century Sepphoris synagogue showing a round, three-legged table with twelve loaves, and a similar depiction in a fourth-century Samaritan synagogue at el-Hirbeh. These various depictions, particularly the round, three-legged tables in Dura, Sepphoris, and el-Hirbeh, suggest a common source, possibly a Jewish pattern book, in contrast to the Arch of Titus's rectangular table, which aligns more closely with the Biblical description.[24][25]

Ritual Objects edit

In Late Antiquity Jewish art, four ritual objects - the lulav, ethrog, shofar, and flask - commonly appear alongside the menorah. These objects are associated with Sukkoth, the Feast of the Tabernacles, a significant festival during the Second Temple period. This festival, marking the final harvest of the year, was one of the three annual pilgrimages in the Jerusalem Temple.[26][27][28][29]

Diaspora Jewish art differs from that in the Land of Israel; for instance, the flask in diaspora art replaces the incense shovel found in Israel. Additionally, Torah scrolls emerge as a unique element in diaspora art, while the hanging lamp, prevalent in Israeli Jewish art, is absent in the diaspora.[26][27][29]

Common combinations of these ritual objects in synagogue mosaics and reliefs include the lulav, ethrog, shofar, and flask; the lulav, ethrog, and shofar; the lulav and ethrog; and the lulav and shofar.[26][27][28]

The Temple, the Ark of the Scrolls, and the Ark of the Covenant edit

 
Mordecai and Esther

In diaspora Jewish art, images of structures are depicted on wall paintings, tombstones, gold glasses, and clay lamps. These images represent the Temple in Jerusalem, the Ark of the Scrolls, aediculae, and the Ark of the Covenant, each differing in form and design to signify their unique identifications and functions.[30][31]

At Dura Europos, a synagogue in modern day Syria, several murals from Late Antiquity portraying biblical themes have been uncovered.[32][33][34] the Temple is portrayed on the Torah shrine's facade, featuring a tetrastyle sanctuary with fluted columns and a double door, symbolizing the Temple in Jerusalem. This design is compared to similar ones on Bar Kokhba coins. A gold glass depicts a tetrastyle gabled shrine within a peristyle court, resembling the Dura Europos design but also showing features of the Jerusalem Temple.[30][31][9]

The Torah Shrine, found in diaspora art such as a fourth-century funerary plaque from Malaga, usually consists of double columns supporting a conch-decorated arch. Few examples exist, but those that do often include a menorah or other Jewish symbols.[30]

The Ark of the Scrolls housed Torah scrolls within the Torah shrine. Its depiction varies but generally includes an open-door ark with scrolls on shelves. Diaspora examples often show an open ark, contrasting with closed-door types common in the Land of Israel. The ark is sometimes flanked by menorahs, ritual objects, and animals in various art forms.[30]

At Dura-Europos, the Ark of the Covenant appears as a tall, arched-top chest in several panels. Its depictions differ from the Ark of the Scrolls, representing a separate entity historically used to contain the Tablets of the Law and not present in the Second Temple.[30][9][31]

References edit

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Bibliography edit