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18th century works still operating in the 19th century

In 1800 most of the nation's glass products came from Europe, and the United States was thought to have fewer than ten glass factories. The domestic glass works were typically located near waterways that provided a transportation resource. Although some high–quality tableware may have been produced in Philadelphia or Baltimore, most glass factories produced bottles or window glass. Lead ore, known as red lead, was a key additive for high–quality glassware, and England controlled the supply. Glass companies producing in the United States are listed below.

Kensington Glass Works flask, Metropolitan Museum of Art

• Kensington Glass Works: In 1771 Robert Towars and James Leacock started the Kensington Glass Works in Philadelphia's Kensington neighborhood. Although glass factories had already been established near Philadelphia in Bucks and Lancaster counties, this was the first 18th century glass works in Philadelphia County. The works may have used coal to power its furnace, possibly making it among the first American works to do so. During November 1772, John Elliott, Samuel Elliott, and Isaac Gray gained control of the factory and they called it the Philadelphia Glass Works. Products were window glass, white glass, and green glass. Glass was made sporadically (including periods of idleness that lasted for years) under various owners throughout the next century.
• Stanger Brothers: The Stanger Brothers glass works in Glassboro, New Jersey, is believed to have began production in 1781. In 1783 Thomas Heston and Thomas Carpenter gained control of the plant. The factory operated under various owners (including descendants of Heston) until it was purchased in 1918.
• Pitkin Glass Works: In 1783 William and Elisha Pitkin, and Samuel Bishop, established a glass works in East Hartford, Connecticut (which became part of Manchester in 1823). This was the first works in Connecticut to actually be built and produce. Products were bottles of various sizes and colors. J. P. Foster was one of the superintendents. Foster took over management in 1810, and the factory operated until 1830 when timber had become scarce.
• Albany Glass Works: In 1785 Leonard de Neufville, with associates Jan Heefke and Ferdinand Walfahrt, built the Albany Glass Works at Dowesborough, New York, which was less than 15 miles (24 km) west of Albany. The design of the works was very similar to the design used for Amelung's glass works in Maryland. German workers were used, and production of window glass is believed to have begun in 1786. De Neufville was a poor financial manager, and the glass works was abandoned by 1790. James Caldwell and associates renovated the abandoned factory in 1792 and began producing window glass. He called his factory the Albany Glass House. A fire severely damaged the factory during the summer of 1794, but by December the old glass works, and a new one, were operating. More financial difficulties in 1795 caused the works to be taken over by Thomas and Samuel Mather. Products were window glass and bottles.
• Boston Crown Glass Company: Robert Hewes, Samuel Walley, John Gore, and eight others organized the Boston Crown Glass Company on July 6, 1787. Production did not start until November 11, 1793. Original works was located on Essex Street in Boston, and produced high quality window glass. Company was reorganized in 1809 with different owners, and a second works was completed during 1811 in South Boston. The company failed in 1827, and one of the glass factories was destroyed by fire in 1929.
• Aetna Glass–House: Thomas Johnson, first governor of Maryland, owned the Aetna Glass House—which was sometimes referred to as the Johnson Glass Works. The plant was located southeast of Frederick, Maryland, on Bush Creek, and production began in 1792. Products were bottles, and window glass was also made later. This works was offered for sale in November 1793, and it was operated only intermittently until 1807. All glassmaking in Frederick County ended by 1820s.
• O'Hara and Craig: In 1796 Colonel James O'Hara and Major Isaac Craig began planning for the first glass works in Pittsburg. This was one of the first to use coal as a fuel for its furnaces. Peter William Eichbaum, who had been involved with the Schuylkill glass works near Philadelphia that used coal for its furnaces, provided the glassmaking expertise and supervised the construction of the Pittsburg works. Actual glass production started in June 1797, making it the first to produce glass in the United States west of the Allegheny Mountains. The factory was called Pittsburgh Glass Works, and Eichbaum was its superintendent. In 1798, Eichbaum leased the factory, but control returned to O'Hara and Craig in 1800. Window glass, bottles, and other hollow ware were produced. Craig left the business in 1804, and O'Hara was the only owner through 1818. The glassworks continued operations, under various owners and names, until 1883.
• New Geneva Glass Works: In 1795 Albert Gallatin formed a partnership with James Nicholson (Gallatin's brother–in–law) and three others. They purchased land in western Pennsylvania's Fayette County for the purpose of commercial development, and they named their land New Geneva. The location gave them access to the west using waterways, and they also had access to the east coast using roads that connected to Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington, DC. In September 1797 the partnership made an agreement with five German glassblowers to start a glass works. Production began in 1797 shortly after production at the O'Hara and Craig works began in Pittsburgh. The works was about 45 miles (72 km) south of O'Hara and Craig's Pittsburgh glass works. Among his workers, mostly Germans, were former employees of the Amelung works. Gallatin's glass company was originally called Gallatin & Company, but later it became the New Geneva Glass Works. This works was initially very profitable, since there were only two or three other window glass works operating in the United States. It operated until 1803. The works was moved across the river in 1807.
• A. Kohlenberg's New Glassworks: In 1797 Adam Kohlenberg and John Christian Gabler purchased a portion of Amelung's land on Bennet's Creek in Frederick County, Maryland. The land included one of the glass ovens used by Amelung's failed glass works, and Kohlenberg employed some of the glassworkers from Amelung's New Bremen works. Kohlenberg's works produced glass intermittently for about 15 years.
• Federal Hill Works: In 1799 Frederick Amelung, son of John Frederick Amelung, built a glass works in Baltimore. The company name was Frederick M. Amelung and Company, and the glass works was located in Baltimore's Federal Hill neighborhood. The works is often called Federal Hill Works. The factory began producing in 1800, and its products were bottles and glassware. The works was still producing in the late 1820s.
• Ohio Glass Works: In May 1799 Hugh Scott bought land along the Ohio River close to the O'Hara and Craig glass works. He started the Ohio Glass Company, and it began producing window glass in 1800. This works shut down by March 1801.

Other 18th century glass works

Others before the revolution

• 1747: Thomas Darling was granted sole rights to produce glass in the Connecticut Colony for 20 years, but was unable to fulfill the conditions of the agreement.
• 1748: Joseph Crellins was given permission by Massachusetts colonial governor to begin a glass works provided he could secure German workmen, but he could not meet the requirement before the agreement expired.
• 1750: Bottle works established by Peter Etter, John Franklin, Joseph Crellins, and Norton Quincy near Braintree, Massachusetts. The business failed, and in 1752 the works was leased to Joseph Palmer. Around 1756, after infrastructure improvements, fire destroyed the works.
• 1752: Matthew (Mathias) Earnest, Samuel Bayard, Loderwyck Bamper, Christian Hertell and Johan Martin Greiner agreed to establish a glass works in the city of New York. All of the partners were from New York except Greiner, who was from Saxe-Weimar in Europe. As part of the agreement, Greiner would travel from Europe to New York on February 1 (or when the New Yorkers were ready), and he would lead in the construction of the glass works as well as instruct in glass making. The works was called "the Glass House Company of New York". There is no proof that Greiner came to New York, although a "Martin Grenier" was present for the 1763 startup of Stiegel's glass works in Pennsylvania. The Glass House Company of New York was located on the Hudson River on land that included the Glass House Farm and became known as New Found Land. Newspaper advertising indicates that the works was producing by October 1754, and bottles were the main products. The glass works failed some time before 1762. In 1767 the works and land was offered for sale.
• 1754: Loderwick Bamper, one of the founders of the glass works in New Windsor, is thought to have started a glass works in Brooklyn. Products were to be bottles, but there is little evidence that the works actually produced glass.
• 1760: In Philadelphia, Jacob Barge advertised that he was willing to purchase broken glass (cullet) to be used to make glass at a new glass house. He mentioned Jacob Morgan, James White, and Jacob Reno as buyers in addition to himself—implying that they were partners in the glass factory. Little is known about the glass works. However, it is known that Jacob Barge was a resident of the Hilltown district of Pennsylvania's Bucks County. Another Hilltown resident, Peter Mason, appears to have run the glass works from 1776 until 1784. In 2001 and 2006, glass artifacts were recovered in Hilltown Township, of Bucks County. Evidence indicates that the glass house may have been in operation as early as 1760 and operated through 1784.

Others after the revolution

• 1780: Robert Hewes established the New England Glassworks near Temple, New Hampshire. German glassworkers were employed, but not Hessen deserters from the British army as local lore suggests. The works was destroyed by fire almost immediately after construction. The facility was rebuilt and window glass (Crown method) was produced during the summer. The works was shut down and abandoned during the winter of 1781–1782 because of financial difficulties.
• 1780: The Foltz, Kramer, Everhart Glassworks may have been the first significant glassworks in Maryland. It was established by Germans from the former Stiegel glassworks. Conrad Foltz, Martin Eberhart, and four Kramer brothers (Balthazer, Adam, Martin, and George) were the founders. The works was built near Frederick, Maryland, near Bennett's Creek—the future site of the Amelung glass works. When Conrad Foltz died in 1784, the works was sold to John Frederick Amelung.
• 1787: French writer "M. De Warville" wrote that he visited a glass works in Alexandria, Virginia, during 1788. Little else is known about this works (or if it really existed), and another source claims that a glass factory circa the 1890s was Alexandria's first.
• 1793: Thomas Johnson, owner of the Aetna Glass Works, was also the owner of the Tuscarora Glass House that was part of a small industrial complex that was located along Tuscarora Creek on the north side of Frederick, Maryland. The complex, which included included a mill and tannery, was completed by 1793 or earlier. By 1798 the glass works was "out of repair" and owned by Johnson's brother Baker.
• 1794: John Nicholson established a glass works on the west side of Philadelphia at the falls of the Schuylkill River. The factory's furnaces were coal powered, which means the works may have been the first American glass plant to use a furnace powered by coal. Peter William Eichbaum, a glassmaker from Saxony, supervised construction of the glass works and provided glassmaking expertise. Production began in early 1795, and bottles were the main product although a limited quantity of window glass may have been produced. Some glassblowing talent from the Amelung works eventually joined Nicholson's works. Coal quality became a problem in late 1795, and coal became scarce in 1796. Financial difficulties and strikes caused by lack of pay caused the property to be seized in 1797. Nicholson died in a debtors prison in 1800.
• 1795: David Goff established a window glass house in Peterborough (now Peterboro), New York. The factory ceased operations in 1813.
• 1796: John Brown owned a glass works located at India Point in Providence, Rhode Island. The works made bottles for a nearby distillery, and may have been a small operation. Little else is known, but it is thought to have been discontinued in 1799.

Others in table

The sortable table below lists glass works that existed during the 18th century but did not survive into the 19th century. The "Name" is the name of the glass works if available. In cases where there was no name, either the main investor or some type of geographic identifier is used, and "glass works" is not capitalized. The "Year" is the year production started, and it is not the year the business was created. The "State" may also be a colonial province, and this would be used if the United States did not exist yet when production started. The "Location" may be a city, neighborhood or county. Management includes the major investors and (in some cases) the superintendent or glassmaker leading production. "Notes and Citations" includes a brief summary about the glass works and citations for every field in the record. The major source for the list is the McKearin & McKearin book, although others have been reviewed. The Schuylkill glass works, listed below, may have been the first glass factory to use coal to power its furnaces.

Name	Year	State	Location	Management	Notes and Citations
Darling	1747	Connecticut Colony	-	Thomas Darling	Darling was granted sole rights to produce glass in the Connecticut Colony for 20 years, but was unable to fulfill the conditions of the agreement.
Crellins	1748	Massachusetts Bay, Province of	-	Joseph Crellins	Crellins was given permission by Massachusetts colonial governor to begin a glass works provided he could secure German workmen, but he could not meet the requirement before the agreement expired.
Braintree	1750	Massachusetts Bay, Province of	Braintree (now part of Quincy)	Peter Etter, Joseph Crellins, Norton Quincy, and John Franklin	Bottle works failed before 1752, when it was leased to Joseph Palmer. Around 1756, after infrastructure improvements, fire destroyed the works.
New Windsor glass works	1752	New York, Province of	Orange County	Matthew Earnest, Samuel Bayard, Loderwyck Bamper, Christian Hertell	Land may have been originally purchased to supply fuel (wood) for furnaces of the Glass Company's works in New York City. A glass works was erected in 1752 or 1753 to produce bottles and possibly window glass made using the Cylinder method. The works was destroyed by fire on May 24, 1759.
Glasshouse Company of New York	1754	New York, Province of	New York	Matthew Earnest, Samuel Bayard, Loderwyck Bamper, Christian Hertell	Agreement for glass works was made in 1752, and called for Johan Martin Greiner of Saxe-Weimar to provide glassmaking expertise. An old glassworks located on Glasshouse Farm was purchased and the property was called Newfoundland. Bottles were produced, and the works was adjacent to the Hudson River. The works failed before 1762, and was offered for sale in 1767.
Brooklyn Glass Works	1754	New York, Province of	Brooklyn	Loderwyck Bamper (also spelled "Loderwick")	Products were bottles, but there is little evidence works actually produced.
Barge glass works	1760	Pennsylvania, Province of	Bucks County	Jacob Barge	Archeological evidence indicates that window glass was made using the Cylinder method was made, as were various types of bottles. The glass works appears to have operated through 1784.
New England Glassworks	1780	New Hampshire	Temple	Robert Hewes	German glassworkers were employed, but not Hessen deserters from the British army as local lore suggests. The works was destroyed by fire almost immediately after construction. The facility was rebuilt and window glass (Crown method) was produced during the summer. The works was shut down and abandoned during the winter of 1781–1782 because of financial difficulties.
Foltz, Kramer & Everhart	1780	Maryland	Frederick	Conrad Foltz, Martin Eberhart, and four Kramer brothers (Balthazer, Adam, Martin, and George)	The first significant glass works in Maryland was built near Bennett's Creek—the future site of the Amelung glass works. When Foltz died in 1784, the works was sold to John Frederick Amelung.
Tuscarora Glass House	1793	Maryland	Frederick	Thomas Johnson	Glass works was part of a small industrial complex that was located along Tuscarora Creek on the north side of Frederick, Maryland. The complex, which included included a mill and tannery, was completed by 1793 or earlier. By 1798 the glass works was "out of repair". Johnson was also the owner of the Aetna Glass Works.
Schuylkill glass works	1795	Pennsylvania	Philadelphia	John Nicholson	Established in 1794 on the west side of Philadelphia at the falls of the Schuylkill River. The factory's furnaces were coal powered, which means the works may have been the first American glass plant to use a furnace powered by coal. Peter William Eichbaum, a glassmaker from Saxony, supervised construction of the glass works and provided glassmaking expertise. Bottles were the main product although a limited quantity of window glass may have been produced. Financial difficulties and strikes caused by lack of pay caused the property to be seized in 1797.
India Point glass house	1796	Rhode Island	Providence	John Brown	Glass works located at India Point in Providence, Rhode Island. The works made bottles for a nearby distillery, and may have been a small operation. Factory is thought to have been discontinued in 1799.

Future glassmaking

Operating railroad line (in red) in 1840

Diagram from Lubbers Apparatus for Drawing Glass patent

During the early 1800s, English glass manufacturers dumped low–priced glass products in the United States, which drove many American glass companies into bankruptcy. Steamboats enabled Brithish glassmakers to move their products from the port of New Orleans up the Mississippi River. England also controlled the supply of red lead which was a key additive for high–quality glassware. The United States Embargo Act of 1807, and the War of 1812, made red lead extremely difficult for American companies to acquire. American glass man Deming Jarves, sometimes called the "father of the American glass industry", developed a way to produce red lead from domestic sources of lead oxide.

In 1820, there were only 33 glassmaking facilities in the United States. The Tariff of 1824, which was a protective tariff, helped the American glass industry. Between 1820 and 1840, nearly 70 glass factories were started. Most of these factories were small businesses employing 25 to 40 workers. One of the more notable innovations made during this period was the development of machine pressed glass—pressing glass into a mold—during the 1820s. In 1825, John P. Bakewell of Bakewell and Company patented a pressing method for making glass furniture knobs. New England Glass Company and Jarves' Boston and Sandwich Glass Company were early users of machine pressed glass technology. Transportation resources for all manufacturers improved during this time, as the American railroad industry began construction of rail line 1828. By 1840 the nation had 2,818 miles (4,535 km) of railroad line.

Glassmaking on the East Coast of the United States peaked around 1850, as plants shifted to Pittsburgh because of the availability of coal for fuel. By 1850, the United States had 3,237 free men above age 15 who listed their occupation as part of the glass manufacturing process. Pennsylvania accounted for 40% of the glassmaking employees. Other states with more than 100 glass workers were New Jersey, New York, Massachusetts, and Virginia (including what is now West Virginia). The availability of rail transportation increased substantially by this time, as the nation's rail network consisted of 30,635 miles (49,302 km) of rail line by 1860.

More innovations occurred near the end of the century. Among them were tank furnaces and the use of natural gas as a fuel for the furnace to melt glass. The Michael J. Owens' automatic bottle machine, and John H. Lubbers' machine to draw molten glass for windows, had significant impact on glass making at the end of the century. The Lubbers machine enabled the production of panes of glass four times the size of those produced by glassblowers, and eliminated the need for highly-skilled (and highly paid) glassblowers in window glass production. Owens, who began working on his automated glass bottle machine in 1899, completed his work over the next five years. Glass bottles had been made by highly–paid glassblowers, but Owens' machine produced them faster and without the services of glassblowers. By producing glass bottles that were uniform in size and weight, he also created more uses for glass bottles—which increased demand for the product.

Notes

References

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External links

• Historical American Glass
• Jamestown and New Jersey - University of Central Florida History Department
• Jamestown Glasshouse - National Park Service