Demographic Information edit
This section describes the demographic setting of the population(s) sampled, base rates of diagnosis, country/region sampled and the diagnostic method that was used. Using this information, clinicians will be able to anchor the rate of anorexia nervosa that they are likely to see in their clinical practice.
| Setting | Reference | Base Rate (Female) | Basic Rate (Male) | Demography | Diagnostic Method |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Non-clinical: Population Based (NCS-R) | Hudson, Hiripi, Pope, & Kessler, 2007[1] | .9% | .3% | Nationally representative US sample of adults | WHO-CIDI |
| Non-clinical: Population Based (NCS-A) | Swanson, Crow, Le Grange, Swendson, & Merikangas, 2011[2] | .3% | .3% | Nationally representative US sample of adolescents | WHO-CIDI |
| Non-clinical: Latinos in US | Alegria et al., 2007[3] | .12% | .03% | Latino Households in US | WHO-CIDI |
| Non-clinical: African Americans and Caribbean Blacks in the US (NSAL) | Taylor, Caldwell, Baser, Faison, & Jackson, 2007[4] | .14% | .2% | National probability sample of adult and adolescent African Americans and Caribbean Blacks | WHO-CIDI |
| Military | Antczak & Brininger, 2008[5] | .04% (combined) | .04% (combined) | US Military | ICD codes from electronic records |
| Non-clinical; Military | Beekley et al., 2009 | .02% (7 years) | 0.0% (7 years) | US Military Academy cadets | EAT-26 |
| Non-clinical; Military | McNulty, 1997 | 1.1% (current & past) | N/A | US Navy female nurses | DSM-III |
| Non-clinical; Military | McNulty & Fisher, 2001 | 1.1% | N/A | Active dutyfemales in US Army, Navy, Air Force, & Marines | EDI-2 |
| Non-clinical; Military | Striegel et al., 2008 | .04% | .005% | US veterans | ICD-9-CM |
| Non-clinical; Military | McNulty & Fisher, 1997 | N/A | 2.5% | Active duty males in US Navy | N/A |
| Clinical; Collaborative Study on the Genetics of Alcoholism (COGA) | Schuckit et al., 1996[6] | 1.41% (lifetime) | .00% (lifetime) | US alcohol-dependent adults from San Diego, St. Lois, Iowa City, Farmington, New York, & Indianapolis | SSAGA |
| Non-clinical; student-athletes | Johnson et al., 1999 | .00% | .00% | US Division I varsity student-athletes | EDI-2 |
| Non-clinical; healthcare members | Striegel-Moore et al., 2008 | .0269% (current) | Members of a large US healthcare organization in Portland, Oregon | Healthcare provider records | |
| Non-clinical; high school students | Lewinsohn et al., 1993 | . 00% (point), .45% (lifetime) | .00% (point), .00% (lifetime) | US high school students in west central Oregon | DSM-III-R4 |
| Non-clinical; Commonwealth of Virginia Mid-Atlantic Twin Registry (MATR) | Walters & Kendler, 2002 | 1.62% (narrow), 3.70% (broad) | US Caucasian female same-sex twins | SCID16 | |
| Non-clinical; Adolescents | Stice et al., 2013 | .8% (lifetime) | N/A | US female adolescents | EDDI |
| Non-clinical; college students | Mulholland & Mintz, 2001 | .00% | .00% | US African American college females | Q-EDD8 |
| Clinical; substance users | Ross et al., 1988 | .4% (lifetime), .3% (current) | .4% (lifetime), .3% (current) | Canadian treatment-seeking substance users | DIS9 |
| Europe | |||||
| Non-clinical; adolescents | Lahortiga et al., 2005 | .3% | -- | Adolescent females residing in Navarra, Spain | EAT-403 |
| Non-clinical; adolescents | Kjelsås et al., 2004 | .7% (lifetime) | .2% (lifetime) | Adolescents in secondary schools in Sør-Trøndelag, County in Norway | SEDs10 |
| Non-clinical; adolescents | Isomaa et al., 2009 | .7% (point; age 15), 1.8% (lifetime, age 15), .00% (point, age 18), 2.6% (lifetime, age 18), .9% (3 years) | .00% (point & lifetime) | Adolescents in a comprehensive school in Ostrobothnia district in Finland | RAB-T11 & RAB-R12 |
| Australia | |||||
| Non-clinical; adolescents | Patton et al., 2003 | .00% (full), 1.8% (partial) | -- | Adolescent females residing in Victoria, Australia | BET13 |
| Non-clinical; Health Omnibus Survey (HOS) | Hay et al., 2015 | .46% (3 months; combined) | .46% (3 months; combined) | South Australian older adolescents and adults | EDE14 |
| Central & South America | |||||
| Non-clinical; college students | Mancilla-Diaz et al., (2007) | .00% | -- | Mexican first & second year college females | EAT-403 |
| East Asia | |||||
| Clinical; eating disorder patients | Nadaoka et al., 1996 | .53% | -- | Adolescent and adult Japanese patients at a university hospital | DSM-III-R4 |
| Non-clinical; Korean Epidemiologic Catchment Area (KECA) Study | Je Cho et al., (2007) | .1% (lifetime), .1% (12 months) | .2% (lifetime), .00% (12 months) | Korean adults | K-CIDI15 2.1 |
| Non-clinical: National Latino and Asian American Study (NLAAS) | Nicdao et al., 2007 | .12% (lifetime), .00% (12 months) | .05% (lifetime), .05% (12 months) | Asian American adults in US households | WHO-CIDI1 |
| Centers participating in the Collaborative Study on the Genetics of Alcoholism in San Diego; St. Louis; Iowa City; Farmington, CN; New York; & Indianapolis | Schuckit et al., 1996 | 1.41% | N/A | Alcohol-dependent adults | Semi-Structured Assessment for the Genetics of Alcoholism; criteria based on DSM-III-R |
1World Health Organization Composite International Diagnostic Interview
2International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems
3Eating Attitudes Test
4Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
5Eating Disorder Inventory
6Semi-Structured Assessment for the Genetics of Alcoholism
7Eating Disorders Diagnostic Interview
8Questionnaire for Eating Disorder Diagnoses
9National Institute of Mental Health Diagnostic Interview Schedule
10Modified Survey for Eating Disorders
11Interview Rating of Anorexia and Bulimia - Teenager Version
12Interview Rating of Anorexia and Bulimia - Revised Version
13Branched Eating Disorders Test
14Eating Disorder Examination
15Korean Version of Composite International Diagnostic Interview
16Structured Clinical Interview for DSM Disorders
Search terms: [Anorexia Nervosa OR anorexia OR eating disorder OR disordered eating] AND [prevalence OR base rate OR epidemiology] in Google Scholar
Diagnosis edit
Diagnostic Criteria edit
Diagnostic efficiency information for all included measures is based on criteria from DSM-IV or earlier. As of the compilation of this portfolio, diagnostic efficiency information for these measures based on DSM-5 criteria is unavailable. Once sufficient time for implementation of DSM-5 has passed, measures should be re-evaluated for efficiency with new data. The Feeding and Eating Disorders section of the DSM has undergone notable revision with the shift from DSM-IV to DSM-5, with a primary goal of reducing the large number of Eating Disorder Not Otherwise Specified (EDNOS) diagnoses due to many individuals not fully meeting criteria for Anorexia Nervosa or Bulimia Nervosa as delineated by DSM-IV. Base rates of Feeding and Eating Disorders are likely to shift once DSM-5 criteria have been fully incorporated into clinical practice and research.
Anorexia Nervosa diagnostic criteria have changed as follows:
- The requirement for amenorrhea was eliminated in DSM-5
- Criterion A (low body weight) wording was edited for clarification
- Criterion B (fear of weight gain) expanded to include both expressed fear of weight gain and persistent behavior interfering with weight gain
Recommended Screening Measures: edit
- Structured Clinical Interview for DSM Diagnoses Anorexia Nervosa module (SCID): See Appendix A
- Eating Disorder Examination (EDE): See Appendix B
- Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire (EDE-Q): See Appendix C
- Eating Attitudes Test (EAT-26): See Appendix
Areas Under the Curve (AUCs) and Likelihood Ratios for Potential Screening Measures for Anorexia Nervosa in Adult Females edit
| Screening Measure (Primary Reference) | AUC | LR+ (Score) | LR- (Score) | Citation | Clinical Generalizability |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| EDE-Q (Fairburn & Beglin, 1994) | .96 (N=1170) | -- | -- | (Aardoom, Dingemans, Slof Op't Landt, & Van Furth, 2012) | Moderate: Dutch treatment-seeking
females meeting DSM-IV criteria for an eating disorder versus female general population sample recruited through advertisements and personal contacts. Eating disorders were not separated |
| EDE-Q (Fairburn & Beglin, 1994) | -- | 6.57 (2.3+) | 0.09 (<2.3) | (Mond, Hay, Rodgers,
Owen, & Beumont, 2004) |
Moderate: “Clinically significant
eating disorder” from a community sample versus individuals without “clinically significant eating disorder” from same sample. Eating disorders were not separated. |
| EAT-26 (Garner, Olmsted, Bohr, &
Garfinkel, 1982) |
.90 (N=129) | 12.83 (20+) | .24 (<20) | (Mintz & O'Halloran, 2000) | Low-moderate: College women with
no eating disorder versus college women with a DSM-IV eating disorder. Eating disorders were not separated. |
| Biological & Physical Measures | |||||
| Serum leptin level | 0.984 (N=139) | 14.72 (<2.31) | 0.10 (2.31+) | Föcker et al., 2011 | Adolescent and adult patients in the acute phase of AN according to the DSM-IV and no AN pretreatment versus healthy lean female volunteer university students. |
| Serum leptin standard deviation score (SDS) | 0.939 (N=139) | 5.89 (<-0.45) | 0.09 (-0.45+) | Föcker et al., 2011 | Adolescent and adult patients in the acute phase of AN according to the DSM-IV and no AN pretreatment versus healthy lean female volunteer university students. |
| Body Mass Index (BMI) | 0.936 (N=139) | 5.89 (<17.10) | 0.11 (17.10+) | Föcker et al., 2011 | Adolescent and adult patients in the acute phase of AN according to the DSM-IV and no AN pretreatment versus healthy lean female volunteer university students. |
| REDS-C1 | |||||
| REDS-C (O’Toole, 1999) | 0.658 (N=333), 0.624 (N=236, > 13 years old), 0.772 (N=97, ≤ 13 years old) | -- | -- | DeSocio et al., 2012 | Children and adolescents (8-18 years old) at a clinic being treated for eating and weight concerns. Eating disorders were not separated. |
| EDI2 | |||||
| EDI-2 (Garner, 1991) | 0.556 (N=77) | -- | -- | DeSocio et al., 2012 | Children and adolescents (10-18 years old) at a clinic being treated for eating and weight concerns. Eating disorders were not separated. |
| EDI-2 - Drive for Thinness Subscale (Garner, 1991) | 0.97 (N=92) | 29.39 (14+) | 0.274 (DT≤14) | Segura-Garcia et al., 2015 | Italian individuals with a DSM-IV-TR eating disorder versus individuals at risk for eating disorders. Eating disorders were not separated. |
| EDI-3 - Drive for Thinness Subscale (Garner, 2004) | .903 (N=1298) | -- | -- | Lehmann et al., 2013 | |
| EDI-3 - Eating Disorder Risk Composite (EDRC) (Garner, 2004) | 0.942 (N=92) | 52.08 (EDRC 75+, adults; 90+ adolescents) | 0.379 (EDRC≤75, adults; ≤90 adolescents) | Segura-Garcia et al., 2015 | Italian individuals with a DSM-IV-TR eating disorder versus individuals at risk for eating disorders. Eating disorders were not separated. |
| EDI-3 - Interoceptive Deficits Subscale (Garner, 2004) | .911 (N=2561) | 4.0 (9+) | -- | Clausen et al., 2011 | Danish females with a DSM-IV eating disorder diagnosis recruited from an eating disorder center versus non-clinical control individuals from the Danish Civil Registration system. |
| EDI-3 - Interoceptive Deficits Subscale (Garner, 2004) | .901 (N=1298) | -- | -- | Lehmann et al., 2013 | Dutch patients recruited from eating disorder specialized clinics versus undergraduate female psychology students from a Dutch university. Eating disorders were not separated. |
| EDI-3 - Asceticism Subscale (Garner, 2004) | .886 (N=2561) | 6.5 (9+) | -- | Clausen et al., 2011 | Danish females with a DSM-IV eating disorder diagnosis recruited from an eating disorder center versus non-clinical control individuals from the Danish Civil Registration system. |
| EDI-3 - Asceticism Subscale (Garner, 2004) | .902 (N=1298) | -- | -- | Lehmann et al., 2013 | Dutch patients recruited from eating disorder specialized clinics versus undergraduate female psychology students from a Dutch university. Eating disorders were not separated. |
| EDI-3 - Low Self-Esteem Subscale (Garner, 2004) | .884 (N=2561) | 5.8 (10+) | -- | Clausen et al., 2011 | Danish females with a DSM-IV eating disorder diagnosis recruited from an eating disorder center versus non-clinical control individuals from the Danish Civil Registration system. |
| EDI-3 - Low Self-Esteem Subscale (Garner, 2004) | .906 (N=1298) | -- | -- | Lehmann et al., 2013 | Dutch patients recruited from eating disorder specialized clinics versus undergraduate female psychology students from a Dutch university. Eating disorders were not separated. |
| EDI-3 - Personal Alienation Subscale (Garner, 2004) | .88 (N=2561) | -- | -- | Clausen et al., 2011 | Danish females with a DSM-IV eating disorder diagnosis recruited from an eating disorder center versus non-clinical control individuals from the Danish Civil Registration system. |
| EDI-3 - Personal Alienation Subscale (Garner, 2004) | .899 (N=1298) | -- | -- | Lehmann et al., 2013 | Dutch patients recruited from eating disorder specialized clinics versus undergraduate female psychology students from a Dutch university. Eating disorders were not separated. |
| EDI-3 - Emotional Dysregulation Subscale (Garner, 2004) | .81 (N=2561) | -- | -- | Clausen et al., 2011 | Danish females with a DSM-IV eating disorder diagnosis recruited from an eating disorder center versus non-clinical control individuals from the Danish Civil Registration system. |
| EDI-3 - Emotional Dysregulation Subscale (Garner, 2004) | .779 (N=1298) | -- | -- | Lehmann et al., 2013 | Dutch patients recruited from eating disorder specialized clinics versus undergraduate female psychology students from a Dutch university. Eating disorders were not separated. |
| EDI-3 - Interpersonal Alienation Subscale (Garner, 2004) | .79 (N=2561) | -- | -- | Clausen et al., 2011 | Danish females with a DSM-IV eating disorder diagnosis recruited from an eating disorder center versus non-clinical control individuals from the Danish Civil Registration system. |
| EDI-3 - Interpersonal Alienation Subscale (Garner, 2004) | .743 (N=1298) | -- | -- | Lehmann et al., 2013 | Dutch patients recruited from eating disorder specialized clinics versus undergraduate female psychology students from a Dutch university. Eating disorders were not separated. |
| EDI-3 - Perfectionism Subscale (Garner, 2004) | .79 (N=2561) | -- | -- | Clausen et al., 2011 | Danish females with a DSM-IV eating disorder diagnosis recruited from an eating disorder center versus non-clinical control individuals from the Danish Civil Registration system. |
| EDI-3 - Perfectionism Subscale (Garner, 2004) | .768 (N=1298) | -- | -- | Lehmann et al., 2013 | Dutch patients recruited from eating disorder specialized clinics versus undergraduate female psychology students from a Dutch university. Eating disorders were not separated. |
| EDI-3 - Maturity Fears Subscale (Garner, 2004) | .77 (N=2561) | -- | -- | Clausen et al., 2011 | Danish females with a DSM-IV eating disorder diagnosis recruited from an eating disorder center versus non-clinical control individuals from the Danish Civil Registration system. |
| EDI-3 - Maturity Fears Subscale (Garner, 2004) | .678 (N=1298) | -- | -- | Lehmann et al., 2013 | Dutch patients recruited from eating disorder specialized clinics versus undergraduate female psychology students from a Dutch university. Eating disorders were not separated. |
| EDI-3 - Bulimia Subscale (Garner, 2004) | .76 (N=2561) | -- | -- | Clausen et al., 2011 | Danish females with a DSM-IV eating disorder diagnosis recruited from an eating disorder center versus non-clinical control individuals from the Danish Civil Registration system. |
| EDI-3 - Bulimia Subscale (Garner, 2004) | .776 (N=1298) | -- | -- | Lehmann et al., 2013 | Dutch patients recruited from eating disorder specialized clinics versus undergraduate female psychology students from a Dutch university. Eating disorders were not separated. |
| EDI-3 - Interpersonal Insecurity Subscale (Garner, 2004) | .76 (N=2561) | -- | -- | Clausen et al., 2011 | Danish females with a DSM-IV eating disorder diagnosis recruited from an eating disorder center versus non-clinical control individuals from the Danish Civil Registration system. |
| EDI-3 - Interpersonal Insecurity Subscale (Garner, 2004) | .697 (N=1298) | -- | -- | Lehmann et al., 2013 | Dutch patients recruited from eating disorder specialized clinics versus undergraduate female psychology students from a Dutch university. Eating disorders were not separated. |
| EDI-3 - Body Dissatisfaction Subscale (Garner, 2004) | .722 (N=2561) | 1.7 (15+) | -- | Clausen et al., 2011 | Danish females with a DSM-IV eating disorder diagnosis recruited from an eating disorder center versus non-clinical control individuals from the Danish Civil Registration system. |
| EDI-3 - Body Dissatisfaction Subscale (Garner, 2004) | .849 (N=1298) | -- | -- | Lehmann et al., 2013 | Dutch patients recruited from eating disorder specialized clinics versus undergraduate female psychology students from a Dutch university. Eating disorders were not separated. |
| EAT3 | |||||
| EAT-26 (Garner, et al., 1982[7]) | .90 (N=129) | 12.83 (20+) | .24 (<20) | Mintz & O'Halloran, 2000[8] | Low-moderate: College women with no eating disorder versus college women with a DSM-IV eating disorder. Eating disorders were not separated. |
| EDE-Q4 | |||||
| EDE-Q (Fairburn & Beglin, 1994[9]) | .96 (N=1170) | -- | -- | Aardoom, Dingemans, Slof Op't Landt, & Van Furth, 2012[10] | Moderate: Dutch treatment-seeking females meeting DSM-IV criteria for an eating disorder versus female adult general population sample recruited through advertisements and personal contacts. Eating disorders were not separated. |
| EDE-Q (Fairburn & Beglin, 1994[9]) | -- | 6.57 (2.3+) | 0.09 (<2.3) | (Mond, Hay, Rodgers, Owen, & Beumont, 2004[11]) | Moderate: “Clinically significant eating disorder” from a community sample versus female adultsindividuals without “clinically significant eating disorder” from same sample. Eating disorders were not separated. |
| EDE-Q (Fairburn et al., 2008) | 0.89 (N=2465) | -- | -- | Rø et al., 2015 | Norwegian adult females with an eating disorder recruited from eating disorder specialist centers versus controls determined using the DSM-IV. |
| EDQ-O5 | |||||
| EDQ-Q (Fairburn & Beglin, 1994[9]) | 0.72 (N=134) | 1.00 (all criteria met) | 0.92 (≥1 criteria not met) | (ter Huurne et al., 2015 | Dutch adults recruited from an eating disorder specialist center determined using the DSM-IV-TR. |
1Rating of Eating Disorder Severity for Children
2Eating Disorder Inventory
3Eating Attitudes Test
4Eating Disorders Examination Questionnaire
5Eating Disorders Questionnaire Online Version
Note: “LR+” refers to the change in likelihood ratio associated with a positive test score, and “LR-” is the likelihood ratio for a low score. Likelihood ratios of 1 indicate that the test result did not change impressions at all. LRs larger than 10 or smaller than .10 are frequently clinically decisive; 5 or .20 are helpful, and between 2.0 and .5 are small enough that they rarely result in clinically meaningful changes of formulation (Sackett et al., 2000).
Search terms: [Anorexia Nervosa OR Anorexia OR eating disorder OR disordered eating] AND [measure OR assessment OR questionnaire OR self-report] AND [sensitivity OR specificity OR ROC OR AUC OR likelihood ratio] in Google Scholar |}
Note: “LR+” refers to the change in likelihood ratio associated with a positive test score, and “LR-” is the likelihood ratio for a low score. Likelihood ratios of 1 indicate that the test result did not change impressions at all. LRs larger than 10 or smaller than .10 are frequently clinically decisive; 5 or .20 are helpful, and between 2.0 and .5 are small enough that they rarely result in clinically meaningful changes of formulation (Sackett et al., 2000).
Search terms: [Anorexia Nervosa OR eating disorder] AND [measure OR assessment] AND [sensitivity OR specificity OR ROC OR
AUC] in Google Scholar
Treatment edit
Treatment of AN typically consists of restoring the individual to a healthy weight and addressing thoughts and behaviors which are related to the eating disorder. It may involve re-nutrition, psychotherapy, nutritional counseling, and medication.
Literature reviews of existing research indicate that evidence supporting AN treatment is lacking. A systematic review of AN treatment efficacy studies by Bulik et al. (2007)[12] found that evidence supporting medications, medications and behavioral interventions, and behavioral interventions alone in adults is weak. There is moderately strong evidence suggesting that behavioral interventions may be helpful for adolescents. In particular, adolescents may benefit from family therapy. Clinical trials investigating AN treatment suffer from high rates of attrition, as key features of AN (e.g., denial, fear of weight gain) may contribute to low motivation for remaining in treatment.
More severe cases of AN may be treated in inpatient settings, which are equipped to manage the re-nutrition process and provide medical monitoring. Partial hospitalization and intensive outpatient programs may provide intermediate levels of treatment intensity to assist individuals in the transition from intensive care to outpatient care after weight restoration.
Process and Outcome Measures edit
Severity and Outcome edit
Clinically Significant Change Benchmarks with Common Instruments edit
Benchmarks Based on Published Norms
| Measure | A Cut Score | B Cut Score | C Cut Score | 95% Critical Change (Unstandardized Scores) | 90% Critical Change (Unstandardized Scores) | SE-difference Critical Change (Unstandardized Scores) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| EDE-Q (Mond et al., 2004 norms[11]) Global | 1.4 | 3.2 | 2.3 | .7 | .6 | .3 |
| EDE-Q Restraint | (-.3) | 3.6 | 1.8 | 1.5 | 1.2 | .8 |
| EDE-Q Eating Concern | .1 | 2.0 | 1.2 | 1.1 | .9 | .6 |
| EDE-Q Weight Concern | 1.5 | 3.9 | 2.6 | 1.0 | .9 | .5 |
| EDE-Q Shape Concern | 2.1 | 4.8 | 3.2 | .9 | .7 | .4 |
| EDE (Mond et al., 2004 norms[11]) Global | 1.7 | 2.3 | 1.9 | 1.9 | 1.6 | 1.0 |
| EDE Restraint | .3 | 3.3 | 1.9 | 1.8 | 1.5 | .9 |
| EDE Eating Concern | (-.5) | .9 | .5 | .8 | .7 | .4 |
| EDE Weight Concern | 2.0 | 2.8 | 2.4 | 1.3 | 1.1 | .7 |
| EDE Shape Concern | 2.0 | 3.2 | 2.6 | 1.2 | 1.0 | .6 |
| EAT-26 (Mintz & O'Halloran, 2000 norms[8]) Total | 6.5 | 19.6 | 15.0 | 7.9 | 6.7 | 4.0 |
Note: “A” = Away from the clinical range, “B” = Back into the nonclinical range, “C” = Closer to the nonclinical than clinical mean.
Search terms: [Anorexia Nervosa OR eating disorder] AND [validity OR clinical significance] in Google Scholar
Process Measures edit
Body weight is commonly monitored by clinicians throughout the AN treatment process as helping individuals regain and maintain a healthy weight is a primary treatment goal for AN. Many treatment centers have policies prohibiting patients from seeing their weight.
Motivational Stages of Change may be used to monitor individuals’ readiness to take action against eating disorder behaviors. It has demonstrated predictive validity in a sample of female adolescents attending eating disorder treatment groups (Gusella, Butler, Nichols, & Bird, 2003). See Appendix E
Appendices edit
- [Hardcopy of anorexia nervosa portfolio]
- ^ Hudson, James I.; Hiripi, Eva; Pope, Harrison G.; Kessler, Ronald C. (2007-02-01). "The prevalence and correlates of eating disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication". Biological Psychiatry. 61 (3): 348–358. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.03.040. ISSN 0006-3223. PMC 1892232. PMID 16815322.
- ^ Swanson, Sonja A.; Crow, Scott J.; Le Grange, Daniel; Swendsen, Joel; Merikangas, Kathleen R. (2011-07-01). "Prevalence and correlates of eating disorders in adolescents. Results from the national comorbidity survey replication adolescent supplement". Archives of General Psychiatry. 68 (7): 714–723. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.22. ISSN 1538-3636. PMID 21383252.
- ^ Alegria, Margarita; Woo, Meghan; Cao, Zhun; Torres, Maria; Meng, Xiao-li; Striegel-Moore, Ruth (2007-11-01). "Prevalence and correlates of eating disorders in Latinos in the United States". The International Journal of Eating Disorders. 40 Suppl: S15–21. doi:10.1002/eat.20406. ISSN 0276-3478. PMC 2680162. PMID 17584870.
- ^ Taylor, Jacquelyn Y.; Caldwell, Cleopatra Howard; Baser, Raymond E.; Faison, Nakesha; Jackson, James S. (2007-11-01). "Prevalence of eating disorders among Blacks in the National Survey of American Life". The International Journal of Eating Disorders. 40 Suppl: S10–14. doi:10.1002/eat.20451. ISSN 0276-3478. PMC 2882704. PMID 17879287.
- ^ Antczak, Amanda J.; Brininger, Teresa L. (2008-12-01). "Diagnosed eating disorders in the U.S. Military: a nine year review". Eating Disorders. 16 (5): 363–377. doi:10.1080/10640260802370523. ISSN 1532-530X. PMID 18821361.
- ^ Schuckit, M. A.; Tipp, J. E.; Anthenelli, R. M.; Bucholz, K. K.; Hesselbrock, V. M.; Nurnberger, J. I. (1996-01-01). "Anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa in alcohol-dependent men and women and their relatives". The American Journal of Psychiatry. 153 (1): 74–82. doi:10.1176/ajp.153.1.74. ISSN 0002-953X. PMID 8540597.
- ^ Garner, D. M.; Olmsted, M. P.; Bohr, Y.; Garfinkel, P. E. (1982-11-01). "The eating attitudes test: psychometric features and clinical correlates". Psychological Medicine. 12 (4): 871–878. ISSN 0033-2917. PMID 6961471.
- ^ a b Mintz, L. B.; O'Halloran, M. S. (2000-06-01). "The Eating Attitudes Test: validation with DSM-IV eating disorder criteria". Journal of Personality Assessment. 74 (3): 489–503. doi:10.1207/S15327752JPA7403_11. ISSN 0022-3891. PMID 10900574.
- ^ a b c Fairburn, C. G.; Beglin, S. J. (1994-12-01). "Assessment of eating disorders: interview or self-report questionnaire?". The International Journal of Eating Disorders. 16 (4): 363–370. ISSN 0276-3478. PMID 7866415.
- ^ Aardoom, Jiska J.; Dingemans, Alexandra E.; Slof Op't Landt, Margarita C. T.; Van Furth, Eric F. (2012-12-01). "Norms and discriminative validity of the Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire (EDE-Q)". Eating Behaviors. 13 (4): 305–309. doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2012.09.002. ISSN 1873-7358. PMID 23121779.
- ^ a b c Mond, J. M.; Hay, P. J.; Rodgers, B.; Owen, C.; Beumont, P. J. V. (2004-05-01). "Validity of the Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire (EDE-Q) in screening for eating disorders in community samples". Behaviour Research and Therapy. 42 (5): 551–567. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(03)00161-X. ISSN 0005-7967. PMID 15033501.
- ^ Bulik, Cynthia M.; Berkman, Nancy D.; Brownley, Kimberly A.; Sedway, Jan A.; Lohr, Kathleen N. (2007-05-01). "Anorexia nervosa treatment: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials". The International Journal of Eating Disorders. 40 (4): 310–320. doi:10.1002/eat.20367. ISSN 0276-3478. PMID 17370290.