User:Of Noble Berth/Roman technology

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Further information: Roman technology

[As I did not bold my first draft, everything add for my second draft will be in bold.]

My first draft is in plain text.

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[The Lead]

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Roman technology is the collection of techniques, skills, methods, processes, and engineering practices utilized and developed by Roman civilization and made possible the expansion of the economy and military of ancient Rome the civilization of ancient Rome (753 BC – 476 AD).The Roman Empire was a one of the most technologically advanced civilizations of antiquity. with some of the more advanced concepts and inventions forgotten during the turbulent eras of Late Antiquity and the early Middle Ages. Gradually, some of the technological feats of the Romans were rediscovered and/or improved upon during the Middle Ages and the beginning of the Modern Era; with some in areas such as civil engineering, construction materials, transport technology, and certain inventions such as the mechanical reaper, not improved upon until the 19th century. The Romans achieved high levels of technology in large part because they incorporated technologies from the Greeks, Etruscans, and Celts, and others. The technology developed by a civilization is limited by the available sources of energy, and the Romans were no different in this sense. Accessible sources of energy, determine the the ways in which power is generated. The main types of power accessed by the ancient Romans were human, animal and water.

With these limited sources of power, the Romans managed to build impressive structures, some of which survive to this day. The durability of Roman structures, such as roads, dams, and buildings, is accounted for the building techniques and practices they utilized in their construction projects. Rome and her surrounding area contained various types of volcanic materials, which Romans experimented with in the creation of building materials, particularly cements and mortars. Along with concrete, the Romans used stone, wood, and marble as building materials. They used these materials to construct civil engineering projects for their cities and transportation devices for land and sea travel.

The Romans also contributed to the development of technologies of the battlefield. Warfare was an essential aspect of Roman society and culture. The military was not only used for territorial acquisition and defense, but also as a tool for civilian administrators to use to help staff provincial governments and assist in construction projects. The Romans adopted, improved, and developed military technologies for foot soldiers, cavalry, and siege weapons for land and sea environments.

Having familiar relations with warfare, the Romans became accustom to physical injuries. To combat physical injuries sustained in civilian and military spheres, the Romans innovated medical technologies, particularly surgical practices and techniques.

Types of Power

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Human Power

The most readily available sources of power to the ancients were human power and animal power. An obvious utilization of human power is the movement of objects. For objects ranging from 20 to 80 pounds a single person can generally suffice. For objects of greater weight, more than one person may be required in the transition of location of the object. A limiting factor in using multiple people in the movement of said object, is the available amount of grip space. To overcome this limiting factor, mechanical devices were developed to assist in the manipulation of objects. One device being the windlass which used ropes and pulleys to manipulate objects. The device was powered by multiple people pushing or pulling on handspikes attached to a cylinder.

Human power was also a factor in the movement of ships, in particularly warships. Though wind powered sails were the dominate form of power in water transportation, rowing was often used by military craft during battle engagements.

Animal Power

The primary usage of animal power was for transportation. Several species of animals were used for differing tasks. Oxen are strong creatures that do not require the finest pasture. Being strong and cheap to maintain, oxen were used to farm and transport large masses of good. A disadvantage to using oxen is that they are slow. If speed was desired, horses were called upon. The main environment which called for speed was the battlefield, with horses being used in the cavalry and scouting parties. For carriages carrying passengers or light materials, donkeys or mules were generally used, as they were faster than oxen and cheaper on fodder than horses. Other than being used as a means of transportation, animals were also employed in the operation of rotary mills.
Beyond the confines of the land, a schematic for a ship propelled by animals has been discovered. The work known as Anonymus De Rebus Bellicus describes a ship powered by oxen. Wherein oxen are attached to a rotary, moving in a circle on a deck floor, spinning two paddle wheels, one on either side of the ship. The likelihood that such a ship was ever built is low, due to the impracticality of controlling animals on a watercraft.

Water Power

Power from water was generated through the use of a water wheel. A water wheel had two general designs: the undershot and the overshot. The undershot water wheel generated power from the natural flow of a running water source pushing upon the wheel’s submerged paddles. The overshot water wheel generated power by having water flow over its buckets from above. This was usually achieved by building an aqueduct above the wheel. Although it is possible to make the overshot water wheel 70 percent more efficient than the undershot, the undershot was generally the preferred water wheel. The reason being, the economic cost to building an aqueduct was too high for the mild benefit of having the water wheel turn faster. The primary purpose of water wheels were to generate power for milling operations and to raise water above a system’s natural height. Evidence also exists that water wheels were use to power the operation of saws, though only scant descriptions of such devices remain.

Wind Power

Wind power was used in the operation of watercraft, through the use of sails. Windmills do not appear to have been created in Ancient times.

Solar Power

The Romans used the Sun as a heat source for buildings, such as bath houses. Thermae were built with large windows facing southwest, the location of the Sun at the hottest time of day.

Theoretical Types of Power

Steam Power

The generation of power through steam remained theoretical in the Roman world. Hero of Alexandria published schematics of a steam device which rotated a ball on a pivot. The device used heat from a cauldron to push steam through a system of tubes towards the ball. The device produced roughly 1500 rpm but would never be practical on a industrial scale as the labour requirements to operate, fuel and maintain the heat of the device would have been too great of a cost.

Engineering and Construction

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Building Materials

Wood

The Romans created fireproof wood by coating the wood with alum.

Stone

It was ideal to mine stones from quarries that were situated as close to the site of construction as possible, to reduce the cost of transportation. Stone blocks were formed in quarries by punching holes in lines at the desired lengths and widths. Then, wooden wedges were hammered into the holes. The holes were then filled with water so that the wedges would swell with enough force to cut the stone block out of the Earth. Blocks with the dimensions of 23yds by 14ft by 15ft have been found, with weights of about 1000 tons. There is evidence that saws were developed to cut stone in the Imperial age. Initially, Romans used saws powered by hand to cut stone, but later went on to develop stone cutting saws powered by water.

Cements

The ratio of the mixture of Roman lime mortars depended upon where the sand for the mixture was acquired. For sand gathered at a river or sea, the mixture ratio was two parts sand, one part lime, and one part powdered shells. For sand gathered further inland, the mixture was three parts sand and one part lime. The lime for mortars was prepared in limekilns, which were underground pits designed to block out the wind.

Another type of Roman mortar is known as pozzolana mortar. Pozzolana is a volcanic clay substance located in and around Naples. The mixture ratio for the cement was two parts pozzolana and one part lime mortar. Due to its composition, pozzolana cement was able to form in water and has been found to be as hard as natural forming rock.

Buildings

The Pantheon constructed 113 - 125 CE

The Pantheon

Further information: The Pantheon

The Romans designed the Pantheon thinking about the concepts of beauty, symmetry, and perfection. The Romans incorporated these mathematical concepts into their public works projects. For instance, the concept of perfect numbers were used in the design of the Pantheon by embedding 28 coffers into the dome. A perfect number is a number where its factors add up to itself. So, the number 28 is considered to be a perfect number, because its factors of 1, 2, 4, 7, and 14 add together to equal 28. Perfect numbers are extremely rare, with there being only one number for each quantity of digits (one for single digits, double digits, triple digits, quadruple digits, etc.). Embodying mathematical concepts of beauty, symmetry, and perfection, into the structure conveys the technical sophistication of Roman engineers.

Cements were essential to the design of the Pantheon. The mortar used in the construction of the dome is made up of a mixture of lime and the volcanic powder known as, pozzolana. The concrete is suited for the use in constructing thick walls as it does not require to be completely dry in order to cure.

The construction of the Pantheon was a massive undertaking, requiring large quantities of resources and man hours. Delaine estimates the amount of total manpower needed in the construction the Pantheon to be about 400 000 mandays.  

Hagia Sophia Constructed 532 - 537 CE

Hagia Sophia

Further information: Hagia Sophia

Although the Hagia Sophia was constructed after the fall the of the western empire, its construction incorporated the building materials and techniques signature to ancient Rome. The building was constructed using pozzolana mortar. Evidence for the use of the substance comes from the sagging of the structures arches during construction, as a distinguishing feature of pozzalana mortar is the large amount of time it needs to cure. The engineers had to remove decorative walls in order to let the mortar cure.

The pozzalana mortar used in the construction of the Hagia Sophia does not contain volcanic ash but instead crushed brick dust. The composition of the materials used in pozzalana mortar leads to an increased tensile strength. A mortar composed of mostly lime has a tensile strength of roughly 30 psi whereas pozzalana mortar using crushed brick dust has a tensile strength of 500 psi. The advantage of using pozzalana mortar in the construction of the Hagia Sophia is the increase in strength of the joints. The mortar joints used in the structure are wider than one would expect in a typical brick and mortar structure. The fact of the wide mortar joints suggests the designers of the Hagia Sophia knew about the high tensile strength of the mortar and incorporated it accordingly.

Waterworks

Aqueducts

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Roman aqueducts conjure images of water travelling long distances across arched bridges, however; only 5 percent of the water being transported along the aqueduct systems traveled by way of bridges. Roman engineers worked to make the routes of aqueducts as practical as possible. In practice, this meant designing aqueducts that flowed ground level or below surface level, as these were more cost effective than building bridges considering the cost of construction and maintenance for bridges was higher than that of surface and sub-surface elevations. Aqueduct bridges were often in need of repairs and spent years at a time in disuse. Water theft from the aqueducts was a frequent problem which lead to difficulties in estimating the amount of water flowing through the channels. To prevent the channels of the aqueducts from eroding, a plaster known as opus signinum was used. The plaster incorporated crushed terracotta in the typical Roman mortar mixture of pozzolana rock and lime.

Dams

Proserpina Dam was constructed during the first to second century CE and is still in use today.

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The Romans built dams to store water for irrigation. They understood that spillways were necessary to prevent the erosion of earth-packed banks. In Egypt, the Romans adopted the water technology known as wadi irrigation from the Nabataeans. Wadi’s were a technique developed to capture large amounts of water produced during the seasonal floods and store it for the growing season. The Romans successfully developed the technique further for a larger scale.

Sanitation

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Roman Baths

Further information: Thermae

The containment of heat in the rooms was important in the operation of the baths, as to avoid patrons from catching colds. To prevent doors from being left open, the door posts were installed at inclined angle so that the doors would automatically swing shut. Another technique of heat efficiency was the use of wooden benches over stone, as wood conducts away less heat.

Transportation

Roads

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Bridges

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Carts

Roman carts had many purposes and came in a variety of forms. Freight carts were used to transport goods. Barrel carts were used to transport liquids. The carts had large cylindrical barrels laid horizontally with their tops facing forward. For transporting building materials, such as sand or soil, the Romans used carts with high walls. Public transportation carts were also in use with some designed with sleeping accommodations for up to six people.

The Romans developed a railed cargo system for transporting heavy loads. The rails consisted of grooves embedded into existing stone roadways. The carts used in such a system had large block axles and wooden wheels with metal casings.

Carts also contained brakes, elastic suspensions and bearings. The elastic suspension systems used leather belts attached bronze supports to suspend the carriage above the axles. The system helped to create a smoother ride by reducing the vibration. The Romans adopted bearings developed by the Celts. The bearings decreased rotational friction by using mud to lubricate stone rings.

Industrial

Mining

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Military Technology

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Further information: Roman military engineering

{The Roman military technology ranged from personal equipment and armament to deadly siege engines. They inherited almost all ancient weapons.}

Foot Solider

Weaponry

{Pilum (spear): The Roman heavy spear was a weapon favored by legionaries and weighed approximated five pounds. The innovated javelin was designed to be used only once and was destroyed upon initial use. This ability prevented the enemy from reusing spears. All soldiers carried two versions of this weapon: a primary spear and a backup. A solid block of wood in the middle of the weapon provided legionaries protection for their hands while carrying the device. According to Polybius, historians have records of "how the Romans threw their spears and then charged with swords". This tactic seemed to be common practice among Roman infantry.}

Armour

{While heavy, intricate armour was not uncommon (cataphracts), the Romans perfected a relatively light, full torso armour made of segmented plates (lorica segmentata). This segmented armour provided good protection for vital areas, but did not cover as much of the body as lorica hamata or chainmail. The lorica segmentata provided better protection, but the plate bands were expensive and difficult to produce and difficult to repair in the field. Generally chainmail was cheaper, easier to produce, and simpler to maintain, was one-size fits all, and was more comfortable to wear – thus, it remained the primary form of armour even when lorica segmentata was in use.}

Tactics

{Testudo is a tactical strategic military maneuver is originally Roman original to Rome. The tactic was implemented by having units raise their shields in order to protect themselves from enemy projectiles raining down on them. The strategy only worked if each member of the testudo protected his comrade. Commonly used during siege battles, the “sheer discipline and synchronization required to form a Testudo” was a testament to the abilities of legionnaires. Testudo, meaning tortoise in Latin, “was not the norm, but rather adopted in specific situations to deal with particular threats on the battlefield”. The Greek phalanx and other Roman formations were a source of inspiration for this maneouver.}

Cavalry

{The Roman cavalry saddle had four horns [1] and is believed to have been copied from Celtic peoples.}

Siege Warfare

{Roman siege engines such as ballistas, scorpions and onagers were not unique. But the Romans were probably the first people to put ballistas on carts for better mobility on campaigns. On the battlefield, it is thought that they were used to pick off enemy leaders. There is one account of the use of artillery in battle from Tacitus, Histories III,23:

On engaging they drove back the enemy, only to be driven back themselves, for the Vitellians had concentrated their artillery on the raised road that they might have free and open ground from which to fire; their earlier shots had been scattered and had struck the trees without injuring the enemy. A ballista of enormous size belonging to the Fifteenth legion began to do great harm to the Flavians' line with the huge stones that it hurled; and it would have caused wide destruction if it had not been for the splendid bravery of two soldiers, who, taking some shields from the dead and so disguising themselves, cut the ropes and springs of the machine.}

In addition to innovations in land warfare, the Romans also developed the Corvus (boarding device) a movable bridge that could attach itself to an enemy ship and allow the Romans to board the enemy vessel. Developed during the First Punic War it allowed them to apply their experience in land warfare on the seas.

Ballistas and Onagers

Further information: Ballista

{While core artillery inventions were notably founded by the Greeks, Rome saw opportunity in the ability to enhance this long range artillery. Large artillery pieces such as Carroballista and Onagers bombarded enemy lines, before full ground assault by infantry. The manuballista would "often be described as the most advanced two-armed torsion engine used by the Roman Army”. The weapon often looks like a mounted crossbow capable of shooting projectiles. Similarly, the onager “named after the wild ass because of its ‘kick’," was a larger weapon that was capable of hurling large projectiles at walls or forts. Both were very capable machines of war and were put to use by the Roman military.}

The Helepolis

Further information: helepolis

Computer model of a helepolis

The helepolis was a transportation vehicle used to besiege cities. The vehicle had wooden walls to shield soldiers as they were transported toward the enemy’s walls. Upon reaching the walls, the soldiers would disembark at the top of the 15m tall structure and drop on to the enemy’s ramparts. To be effective in combat, the helepolis was designed to be self-propelled. The self-propelled vehicles were operated using two types of motors: an internal motor powered by humans, or a counterweight motor powered by gravity. The human powered motor used a system of ropes that connected the axles to a capstan. It has been calculated that at least 30 men would be required to turn the capstan in order to exceed the force required to move the vehicle. Two capstans may have been used instead of just the one, reducing the amount of men needed per capstan to 16, for a total of 32 to power the helepolis. The gravity powered counterweight motor used a system of ropes and pulleys to propel the vehicle. Ropes were wrapped around the axles, strung through a pulley system which connected them to a counterweight hanging at the top of the vehicle. The counterweights would have been made of lead or a bucket filled with water. The lead counterweight was encapsulated in a pipe filled with seeds to control its fall. The water bucket counterweight was emptied when it reached the bottom of the vehicle, raised back to the top, and filled with water using a reciprocating water pump, so that motion could again be achieved. It has been calculated that to move a helepolis with a mass of 40000kg, a counterweight with a mass of 1000kg was needed.

Greek Fire

Further information: Greek fire

{Originally an incendiary weapon perfected from the Greeks in 7th century AD, the Greek fire “is one of the very few contrivances whose gruesome effectiveness was noted by” many sources. Roman innovators made this already lethal weapon even more deadly. Its nature is often described as a “precursor to napalm". Military strategists often put the weapon to good use during naval battles, and the ingredients to its construction “remained a closely guarded military secret”. Despite this, the devastation caused by Greek fire in combat is indisputable.}

Transportation

Pontoon Bridge

Further information: Pontoon bridge

{Mobility, for a military force, was an essential key to success. Although this was not a Roman invention, as there were instances of "ancient Chinese and Persians making use of the floating mechanism”, Roman generals used the innovation to great effect in campaigns. Furthermore, engineers perfected the speed at which these bridges were constructed. Leaders surprised enemy units to great effect by speedily crossing otherwise treacherous bodies of water. Lightweight crafts were “organized and tied together with the aid of planks, nails and cables”. Rafts were more commonly used instead of building new makeshift bridges, enabling quick construction and deconstruction. The expedient and valuable innovation of the pontoon bridge also accredited its success to the excellent abilities of Roman Engineers.}

Medical Technologies

Further information: Military medicine

Surgery

{Although various levels of medicine were practiced in the ancient world, the Romans created or pioneered many innovative surgeries and tools that are still in use today such as hemostatic tourniquets and arterial surgical clamps. Rome was also responsible for producing the first battlefield surgery unit, a move that paired with their contributions to medicine made the Roman army a force to be reckoned with. They also used a rudimentary version of antiseptic surgery years before its use became popular in the 19th century and possessed very capable doctors.}

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{In summary, Rome contributed numerous advances in technology to the Ancient World. However, it is also viewed that "the ancient world under the domination of Rome [in fact] reached a kind of climax in the technological field [as] many technologies had advanced as far as possible with the equipment then available". This concept of perfecting the unperfected was a theme that governed Roman technological supremacy throughout its 1,470 year reign. Ideas that had already been invented or designed: like the pontoon bridge, aqueduct, and military surgery, were constructed or utilized to perfection by Roman innovators. It's the innovation of technology that contributed to Rome's military success.}

Construction Timeline

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Buildings

The Pantheon

The Pantheon has generally been thought to have been built under the rule of emperor Hadrian, however; closer examinations have proposed earlier dates of construction.

Brickstamps were used by the Romans to date buildings. The bricks were marked with the name of the two consuls for that year. Ancient Roman buildings often have multiple brickstamp dates on them as public works projects took many years to complete. The Pantheon has 184 brickstamps in and around its structure with about 70 brickstamps determined to be dependable dates. The majority of the brickstamp dates, roughly 88.6 percent, reside in the Trajanic, late Trajanic, and early Hadrianic periods of the Empire [89]. Hetland argues that the Trajanic period should be credited with the design of the Pantheon, with its construction being completed in the Hadrianic era.

List of Roman Technologies

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See Also

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• Roman mining
• Maritime hydraulics in antiquity
• De Architectura
• Ancient Greek technology
• History of science in Classical Antiquity
• Medieval technology
• Science in Medieval Western Europe
• List of Byzantine inventions
• Renaissance technology

Peer Review 2: Reviewer: Nealthane

The article as a whole comes-off as well-written, a some-what neutral but very much matter of fact tone, as well as remaining concise, especially in regard to the bolded areas or the parts that the author has added in themselves. However, I would say that there are still a number of things that strike me as needing immediate attention:

• The author needs to add in citations in multiple areas for information they have taken from other sources and inputted into the sandbox. In other words, despite having clear and concise sentences, those sentences still need to be cited as you, the author, are not the original source. Please make that your top priority.
• Another limitation that I have found within the text, has to do with the structuring of the author's sentences. Particularly in the fact that the author could reduce several sentences into one, as in some cases, the text feels very peace-meal and ruins the flow of what is being described. A great example, would be the author's paragraph for Stone's, under the section for Building Materials.
• I can also give you a helpful tip on terminology that you use (e.g., limekilns, pozzolana, etc.). You want to highlight these terms or super-link them to an existing page that goes into more detail about them, otherwise people who read these parts of the article are going to be confused by the use of that term. In addition, if you cannot find a source for them, then do as I have iterated above and in-text citate the paragraph properly. You want to make sure that your work is grounded in source-material otherwise its becomes plagiarized.
• I like how in certain sections (e.g., the Pantheon), you have added in extra information that flows well with what is being said prior. Or with the Hagia Sophia, here, you have managed to create a good lead-into what is going to be talked about, in a way that gives additional insight into the topic of interest. Good job!
• A neutral tone is not always sustained, such as when the author talks about "Carts", the word "hence" is used, which veers from being matter of fact, to being opinionated. I have removed the term but I still strongly suggest that you go through the text, including all of the text that was here originally, and just check for any instances of non-neutral wording. And again, this would also be a good opportunity for you to cite any of the work that was originally added and that lacks citations.
• The author's final paragraph on the "Helopolis" could use some corrections. Again, cite your work. Furthermore, you could do with re-phrasing some of your sentences (e.g., The helepolis was a transportation vehicle used to siege cities. Which can be changed to The helepolis was a transportation vehicle involved in the siege of cities.). Simple corrections, but those corrections really ensure clear and concise language.
• Overall, as said prior, the author has made some great contributions, their language is for the most part concise and matter of fact. However, They need to implement more citations as well as a few other things to ensure that their article remains well-written.

Response to Nealthane's Peer Review 2

My plan for the final revision:

• Continue to add content to the article. I am looking to add to the buildings section by including a section on the Colosseum and possibly a temple/mausoleum. I will also add more content to the building materials section. I may also highlight specific aqueducts and dams.
• Edit and improve the grammar of sections already completed. The goal being to make the language more concise, less wordy and easier to read.
• Review the work for any hints of non-neutral language and correcting such language.
• Adding links within the text to other Wikipedia pages for further reading.
• Adding more images and rearranging current images to make the article more presentable.
• Figuring out what to do with the current sections, "Energy constraints" and "Craft basis". Whether it be finding citations for the sections, rewriting the sections with new citations, or removing the sections completely.
• As for the citations I placed in my work, I plan to leave them. My understanding from class was that it would look cluttered and less readable if every sentence was cited with the same citation (I did this in my first edit). Instead sources should be cited at the end of each paragraph if the paragraph came from the same source (as I have done in the second edit).
• I know my language and phrasing is fairly weak so I will start by focusing on reviewing and editing my own work, then move on to dealing with the "energy constaints" and "craft basis" section, followed by incorporating images and on to adding in more content.