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Future of Palynivores[edit]

Palynivores and Flowering Plants[edit]

There has been a decline in palynivore species worldwide that has had drastic consequences for flowering plants. Palynivores are essential to spreading the genes of pollen producing plants via pollen which is used to provide genetic diversity for these plants. While wind and other natural resources can help in process of spreading pollen, they are not specific and do not provide as direct a service as palynivores. Therefore, as the pollination services that these palynivore species provide decreases, there is a corresponding decrease in the flowering plants.

Specific versus General Palynivores[edit]

Palynivores can generally be grouped in 2 categories: specific and general . Specific palynivores exhibit oligolecty, a sympathetic relationship with a specific genus or species of flowering plants, while general palynivores can pollinate a wide range of plants. Because of the specialty of certain types of palynivores such as honey bees, their life cycles have adapted to be closely correlated with certain species of plants. However, when the pollination and flowering periods of these plants change because of different seasonal variations caused by climate change, the palynivore life cycles are no longer in synchronization with that of the plant, thereby causing a decline in both populations  . However, this decline in specific palynivores can also lead to an increase in populations of general palynivores due to a decrease in competition and the increase in availability of resources.

Bumblebee Populations[edit]

The interaction between general and specific species is best shown through members of the Bombus genus more commonly known as the bumblebee. The bumblebee has shown evidence of population decline within both Belgium and the UK with 6 of the 16 non-parasitic bumblebees showing considerable decline and 4 showing possible signs of decline . These observational studies have shown that this decline has been similarly mirrored in the populations of wild plants with which these bees are correlated . However, this decline has not been prevalent among all populations of bumblebees. While many populations of bumblebees have shown a decline, there have been others that have stayed constant or even increased. In the same study of 16 non-parasitic bumble bees there were 6 populations that stayed constant or even increased over the course of the study .

Causes of Palynivore Decline[edit]

Research has shown that a range of different environmental changes and climate changes such as the habitat fragmentation, the introduction of different agrochemicals, and global warming are projected to lead to a decrease in palynivore populations and consequently a decrease in pollination services .

Habitat Fragmentation[edit]

For many palynivores especially colony insects such as bees and ants, suitable habitats are very important and must meet specific requirements. These habitats must contain suitable and sustainable floral resources and suitable nesting sites all within a reasonable flight range from each other. Depending on whether the pollinator is specific or general, the needs for the population may be different.

Specific Palynivores[edit]

For specific palynivores exhibiting oligolecty, the adult seasonal emergence must coincide with the host plant's seasonal bloom. With these specific constraints in place, it can be inferred that specific palynivores must be located are heavily dependent on the seasonal variation of their host plants and the loss of even a small portion of their habitat can have drastic repercussions on the population size.

General Palynivores[edit]

For general palynivores their foraging periods typically last longer than the seasonal bloom of one host. General palynivores must be located within flying distance of multiple different patches of floral plants each with their own flowering periods. Their survival is dependent on their ability to access each of these flower patches at different times during the season and and inability to access specific patches due to either obstruction or destruction of these patches can result in decreased population size.

Agrochemicals[edit]

Dinotefuran a type of neonicotinoid which are highly neurotoxic to insects and mimic their acetylcholine neurotransmitter Agrochemical is short for agricultural chemical and have largely been used in farms and gardens to deter and kill insect pests. One common agrochemical is neonicotinoids which are highly neurotoxic to insects and mimic their acetylcholine neurotransmitters. When applied, neonicotinoids are typically sprayed widely and persist on the soil, in the water, and are taken up by plants. They are toxic and enter into the insect's body resulting in the impairment of foraging success, brood and larval development, and memory and learning as well as causing harmful effects on the nervous system, immune system, and hygiene of the insect. All of these factors negatively impact colony performance and have the potential to lead to colony collapse for both bees and ants.

Global Warming[edit]

Climate Change has resulted in higher average temperatures worldwide which has had significant repercussions on the foraging success of palynivores. Plants have experienced earlier flower and maturity both of which have been shown to be associated with warmer spring temperatures. Since the reproductive cycles of many palynivores are intimately linked to the flowering cycles of their host plants, many palynivore species have not been able to keep up with this change in flowering cycles of many host plants. This has resulted in a drastic decrease in the populations of many specific palynivores and their host plants. However an increase in general palynivore populations has also been recorded. This rise can be attributed to the decrease in competition for these certain host plants as well as the general palynivore's ability to adapt to a changing food source.

Future Actions to Protect Palynivores[edit]

There has been a general decline in plant and palynivore species diversity which is predicted to continue with the current environmental trends seen in the release of greenhouse gasses and climate change. Given the extent of current research and evidence depicting the correlation between palynivore decline and a decline in pollinating plants reproductive success, below are proposed steps that could potentially mitigate the loss of palynivore species.

1. Restore and protect palynivore habitat by identifying floral reserves of threatened migratory or colonizing palynivores
2. Planting more native plants to attract native palynivores Students at the Simi Valley Adventist School planting native plants in their schoolyard habitat project. This will help benefit native pollinators and native wildlife.
3. Increasing the available habitat for palynivores in and around croplands and gardens Bees swarming around a man made beehive compliments of NASA Kennedy Wildlife
4. Mitigating the use of pesticides, agrochemicals, and herbicides

Future of Palynivores[edit]

Palynivores and Flowering Plants[edit]

There has been a decline in palynivore species worldwide that has had drastic consequences for flowering plants. Palynivores are essential to spreading the genes of pollen producing plants via pollen which is used to provide genetic diversity for these plants. While wind and other natural resources can help in process of spreading pollen, they are not specific and do not provide as direct a service as palynivores. Therefore, as the pollination services that these palynivore species provide decreases, there is a corresponding decrease in the flowering plants.

Specific versus General Palynivores[edit]

Palynivores can generally be grouped in 2 categories: specific and general . Specific palynivores exhibit oligolecty, a sympathetic relationship with a specific genus or species of flowering plants, while general palynivores can pollinate a wide range of plants. Because of the specialty of certain types of palynivores such as honey bees, their life cycles have adapted to be closely correlated with certain species of plants. However, when the pollination and flowering periods of these plants change because of different seasonal variations caused by climate change, the palynivore life cycles are no longer in synchronization with that of the plant, thereby causing a decline in both populations  . However, this decline in specific palynivores can also lead to an increase in populations of general palynivores due to a decrease in competition and the increase in availability of resources.

Bumblebee Populations[edit]

The interaction between general and specific species is best shown through members of the Bombus genus more commonly known as the bumblebee. The bumblebee has shown evidence of population decline within both Belgium and the UK with 6 of the 16 non-parasitic bumblebees showing considerable decline and 4 showing possible signs of decline . These observational studies have shown that this decline has been similarly mirrored in the populations of wild plants with which these bees are correlated . However, this decline has not been prevalent among all populations of bumblebees. While many populations of bumblebees have shown a decline, there have been others that have stayed constant or even increased. In the same study of 16 non-parasitic bumble bees there were 6 populations that stayed constant or even increased over the course of the study .

Causes of Palynivore Decline[edit]

Research has shown that a range of different environmental changes and climate changes such as the habitat fragmentation, the introduction of different agrochemicals, and global warming are projected to lead to a decrease in palynivore populations and consequently a decrease in pollination services .

Habitat Fragmentation[edit]

For many palynivores especially colony insects such as bees and ants, suitable habitats are very important and must meet specific requirements. These habitats must contain suitable and sustainable floral resources and suitable nesting sites all within a reasonable flight range from each other. Depending on whether the pollinator is specific or general, the needs for the population may be different.

Specific Palynivores[edit]

For specific palynivores exhibiting oligolecty, the adult seasonal emergence must coincide with the host plant's seasonal bloom. With these specific constraints in place, it can be inferred that specific palynivores must be located are heavily dependent on the seasonal variation of their host plants and the loss of even a small portion of their habitat can have drastic repercussions on the population size.

General Palynivores[edit]

For general palynivores their foraging periods typically last longer than the seasonal bloom of one host. General palynivores must be located within flying distance of multiple different patches of floral plants each with their own flowering periods. Their survival is dependent on their ability to access each of these flower patches at different times during the season and and inability to access specific patches due to either obstruction or destruction of these patches can result in decreased population size.

Agrochemicals[edit]

Agrochemical is short for agricultural chemical and have largely been used in farms and gardens to deter and kill insect pests. One common agrochemical is neonicotinoids which are highly neurotoxic to insects and mimic their acetylcholine neurotransmitters. When applied, neonicotinoids are typically sprayed widely and persist on the soil, in the water, and are taken up by plants. They are toxic and enter into the insect's body resulting in the impairment of foraging success, brood and larval development, and memory and learning as well as causing harmful effects on the nervous system, immune system, and hygiene of the insect. All of these factors negatively impact colony performance and have the potential to lead to colony collapse for both bees and ants.

Global Warming[edit]

Climate Change has resulted in higher average temperatures worldwide which has had significant repercussions on the foraging success of palynivores. Plants have experienced earlier flower and maturity both of which have been shown to be associated with warmer spring temperatures. Since the reproductive cycles of many palynivores are intimately linked to the flowering cycles of their host plants, many palynivore species have not been able to keep up with this change in flowering cycles of many host plants. This has resulted in a drastic decrease in the populations of many specific palynivores and their host plants. However an increase in general palynivore populations has also been recorded. This rise can be attributed to the decrease in competition for these certain host plants as well as the general palynivore's ability to adapt to a changing food source.

Future Actions to Protect Palynivores

== There has been a general decline in plant and palynivore species diversity which is predicted to continue with the current environmental trends seen in the release of greenhouse gasses and climate change. Given the extent of current research and evidence depicting the correlation between palynivore decline and a decline in pollinating plants reproductive success, below are proposed steps that have been shown to mitigate the loss of palynivore species.

1. Restore and protect palynivore habitat by identifying floral reserves of threatened migratory or colonizing palynivores
2. Planting more native plants to attract native palynivores
3. Increasing the available habitat for palynivores in and around croplands and gardens
4. Mitigating the use of pesticides, agrochemicals, and herbicides  ==