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Common bioaerosol isolated from indoor environments

AEROMICROBIOLOGY PAGE OFFICIALLY MERGED WITH EXISTING BIOAEROSOL PAGE AS OF 15 MARCH 2017 03:53 PST

Background

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Aeromicrobiology is the study of bioaerosols (short for biological aerosol). Bioaerosols include bacteria, pollen, viruses, and fungi which are suspended in air, either freely or attached to other airborne particles.[1] Bioaerosols originate from both marine and terrestrial surfaces, and can be transported on both local and regional scales before being deposited elsewhere.[2]

Louis Pasteur was the first to describe the existence of bioaerosols and their activity within the air. Prior to Pasteur’s discovery, only cultures were used to differentiate biodiversity. Because not all bioaerosols can be cultured, many were unidentifiable before the use of DNA-based tools. Pasteur also developed experimental procedures for sampling aeromicrobiology and showed that more bioaerosol activity occurred at lower altitudes and less at higher altitudes.[3]

Types

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Air contains tiny organisms such as fungi, bacteria, viruses, and pollen. Of the organisms suspended in the near-Earth atmosphere (atmospheric aerosols), survival rate within the atmosphere and after redistribution depends on a number of biotic and abiotic factors including climatic conditions, UV, temperature, humidity, as well as available in-air resources within dust or clouds[4]

Bioaerosol particles are generally found in the lower layer of the troposphere and as altitude increases, the concentration of these bioaerosols decreases. Bioaerosols found in marine environments primarily consist of bacteria while terrestrial environments are rich in fungi, pollen, and bacteria.[5] The dominance of particular bacteria and their sources are subject to change according to time and location.[3]

Bioaerosols are diverse in lifespans, impacts, structures and sizes. They can range in size from 10 nanometers (small virus particles) to 100 micrometers (pollen grains).[6] Pollen grains are the largest bioaerosols and are less likely to remain suspended in the air over a long period of time due to their weight,[7] thus decreasing their concentration more rapidly than smaller bioaerosols such as bacteria, fungi and possibly viruses, which may be able to survive into the upper troposphere. At present there is little research on the specific altitude tolerance of different bioaerosols, though it is expected that atmospheric turbulence impacts where different bioaerosols may be found.[5]

Current evidence suggests that most airborne microorganisms are not in a viable state while in the atmosphere and certain groups of bacteria may be capable of performing basic metabolic activity within cloud moisture.[8] It is also possible that enhanced survival levels are achieved by these aerosols when clumped together. Due to evaporation of water, bacterial cells usually die when they become airborne, but under high humidity conditions bioaerosol levels are increased. Fungal cells such as spores, molds, and yeast can be active at low humidity levels and high or low temperatures.[citation needed]

Fungus

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Fungal spores are particularly resilient bioaerosols as they are able to survive in the severe atmospheric conditions and UV light that bioaerosol particles are exposed to during transportation.

Bacteria

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Bacteria is likely a major component of the air biota ecosystem. Unlike other bioaerosols, bacteria are able to complete full reproductive cycles within days or weeks that they survive in airspace. The survival of bacteria depends on droplets from fog and clouds that provide bacteria with nutrients and protection from UV light.[5] There is an unproven theory of bacteria in the atmosphere forming communities and using the atmosphere as a separate ecosystem.[3] There are four known bacteria groupings that are abundant in aeromicrobial environments around the world: Bacillaceae, a rod-shaped bacteria in the phylum Firmicutes some bacteria in the phylum Actinobacteria, Proteobacteria, and Bacteroidetes.[4]

Virus

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The air acts as a carrier for viruses and other pathogens. Since viruses are smaller than other bioaerosols, they have the potential to travel further distances. In one simulation, a virus and a fungal spore were simultaneously released from the top of a building; the spore traveled only 150 meters while the virus traveled almost 200,000 horizontal kilometers.[5]

Pollen

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Unlike some bacteria, pollen are unable to reproduce while in the atmosphere. While they are heavier and larger than their bioaerosol counterparts, some studies show that pollen can be transported thousands of kilometers before being distributed to a more viable terrestrial location.[5] Pollen are a major source of wind dispersed allergens, particularly seasonal releases from grasses, weeds and trees.[7] Studying the abundance and diversity of pollen through time in relation to their sources is one way to track the impacts of climate change and how humans have altered the environment. Tracking distance, transport, and deposition of pollen to terrestrial and marine environments are all important in interpreting pollen records.[7]

Collection

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The main techniques used to collect bioaerosols are collection plates, electrostatic collectors, mass spectrometers, and impactors, while other methods are more experimental in nature.[citation needed]

Single-stage impactors

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To collect aerosols falling within a specific size range, impactors can be designed for a variety of size cuts, depositing material onto slides, agar plates, or tape. The Hirst spore trap samples at 10 LPM and has a wind vane to always sample in the direction of wind flow. Collected particles are impacted onto a vertical glass slide greased with petroleum. Variations such as the 7-day recording volumetric spore trap have been designed for continuous sampling using a slowly rotating drum that deposits impacted material onto a coated plastic tape.[9] The airborne bacteria sampler (ABS) can sample at rates up to 700 LPM, allowing for large samples to be collected in a short sampling time. Biological material is impacted and deposited onto an agar lined Petri dish, allowing cultures to develop.[10]

Cascade impactors

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Similar to single-stage impactors in collection methods, cascade impactors have multiple size cuts, allowing size resolution of sampled bioaerosols. Separating biological material by aerodynamic diameter is useful due to size ranges being dominated by specific types of organisms (bacteria exist range from 1-20 micrometers and pollen from 10-100 micrometers). The Andersen line of cascade impactors are most widely used to test air particles.[11]

Impingers

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Instead of collecting onto a greased substrate or agar plate, impingers have been developed to impact bioaerosols into a liquid, such as deionized water or phosphate buffer solution (PBS). Collection efficiencies of impingers are shown by Ehrlich et al. (1966) to be generally higher than similar single stage impactor designs. Commercially available impingers include the AGI-30 (Ace Glass Inc.) and Biosampler (SKC, Inc).

Transport mechanisms

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Ejection of bioaerosols into the atmosphere

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Bioaerosols are highly relevant for the spread of organisms, allowing genetic exchange between habitats and geographic shifts of biomes.[7] Transport of living bioaerosols begin with reproductive dispersal units such as spores from fungi and pollen from plants that leave the substrate (biosphere) via wind and other disturbances before entering the atmosphere. Non-living bioaersols are also transported from terrestrial surfaces via wind and other disturbances. Bioaerosols can be swept into the atmosphere, including the upper troposphere[3] and possibly into the stratosphere[12] via mechanisms ranging from common wind patterns responsible for local dispersal, to tropical storms and dust plumes which can transport bacteria, fungi, and pollen between continents.[3] These mechanisms can transport bioaerosols to both terrestrial and marine environments. Most marine-related dispersal occurs via spray and bubbles in the water/air interface.[5]

Current research is focused on the role of airspace in the lifecycle and survivability of bioaerosols. There is debate as to whether airspace acts as a transport mechanism for bioaerosols or if it functions as its own ecosystem for these particles as there is evidence that some gram-positive bacteria are able to adapt to life in the atmosphere. Additionally, general microbial diversity is greater in atmospheric areas than on surfaces, showing that a number of aeromicrobial species may be capable of adaptations that would allow for long-term viability while suspended in airspace (Smith, 2010). Current research shows that particular bioaerosol communities have been identified, suggesting that they are existing in their own air-ecosystem.[5]

Small scale transport via clouds

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Aeromicrobiology has shaped our understanding of microorganisms and the differentiation within microbes, including airborne pathogens. In the 1970’s, a breakthrough occurred in atmospheric physics and microbiology when ice nucleating bacteria were identified.[13]

The highest concentration of bioaerosols is near the Earth’s surface in the planetary boundary layer (PBL) where wind turbulence causes vertical mixing, bringing particles from the ground into the atmosphere. Bioaerosols introduced to the atmosphere can form clouds, which are then blown to other geographic locations and precipitate out as rain, hail, or snow, thus depositing the microbes or pollen in the new location.[3] Increased levels of bioaerosols have been observed in rain forests during and after rain evens, and bacteria and phytoplankton from marine environments have been linked to cloud formation.[7] However, for this same reason they cannot be transported long distances in the PBL since the clouds will eventually precipitate out. Furthermore, it would take additional turbulence or convection at the boundary layer top to eject bioaerosols into the troposphere where they may transported larger distances as part of tropospheric flow, limiting the concentrations of bioaerosols at these altitudes.[7]

Atmospheric bioaerosols can be used by cloud droplets, ice crystals, and precipitation as a nucleus where water or crystals can form or hold onto its surface. These interactions show that air particles can change the hydrological cycle and weather conditions around the world. Those changes are a response to climate change through desertification. Particles travel within airspaces that intermix, such as pristine air with smog, change visibility and/or air quality across a broader area.

Large scale transport via dust plumes

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Satellite images show that storms over Australia, as well as African and Asian deserts, can create dust plumes which can carry dust to altitudes of over 5 kilometers above the Earth surface and transport it thousands of kilometers away, even moving the material between continents. Multiple studies have supported the idea that bioaerosols, including bacteria, pollen, and fungi, can be carried along with the dust.[2][14] One study concluded that an airborne bacteria present a particular desert dust source was found a site 1,000 kilometers downwind.[3]

Possible global scale highways for bioaerosols in dust include:

  • Storms over Northern Africa picking up dust, which can then be blown across the Atlantic to the Americas, or north to Europe. For transatlantic transport, there is a seasonal shift in the destination of the dust: North America during the summer, and South America during the winter.
  • Dust collected from the Gobi and Takla Makan deserts and transported to North America, mainly during the Northern Hemisphere spring.
  • Dust from Australia is carried out into the Pacific Ocean, with the possibility of passing over New Zealand.[14]

Community dispersal

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Despite the evidence of transport (which in some cases is over thousands of kilometers), the community profile of bioaerosols can be geographically localized and dependent on meteorological, physical, and chemical factors (as opposed to being evenly distributed over the world). One study generated an airborne bacteria/fungi map of the United States from observational measurements and found that soil pH, mean annual precipitation, net primary productivity, and mean annual temperature, among others, could determine the population in an area.[15]

Biogeochemical impacts

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Bioaerosols impact a variety of Earth biogeochemical systems including, but not limited to atmospheric, terrestrial, and marine ecosystems. As long-standing as these relationships are, the topic of aeromicrobiology is not very well-known.[16][17] Bioaerosols can affect organisms or influence health changes through allergies, disorders, and disease(s). They have aided in the distribution of pollen and spores, contributing to the genetic diversity of organisms across multiple habitats.[7]

Cloud formation

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A variety of bioaerosols have the possibility of becoming cloud condensation nuclei or cloud ice nuclei: living or dead cells, cell fragments, hyphae, pollen, or spores.[7] Cloud formation and precipitation are key features of many hydrologic cycles, to which ecosystems are tied. In addition, global cloud cover is a significant factor in the overall radiation budget and therefore temperature of the Earth. Bioaerosols make up a small fraction of the total cloud condensation nuclei in the atmosphere (between 0.001% and 0.01%) so their global impact (i.e. radiation budget) is questionable.

Some particularly impacted ecosystems include:

  • Areas where there is cloud formation at temperatures over -15°C, since some bacteria have developed proteins which allow them to nucleate ice at higher temperatures.
  • Areas over vegetated regions or under remote conditions where the air is pristine.
  • Near surface air in remote marine regions where sea spray may be more prevalent than dust transported from continents. An example of this would be the Southern Ocean. [7]

Sediment distribution

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In addition to drought, overuse of land causes topsoil erosion[18], allowing winds to transport iron rich nutrients from sediment located in Africa to the Carribbean islands. Similarly, nutrient rich sediments are carried from Asia to Hawaii, thus certain bromeliads are able to thrive in the heights of tree canopies.[19]

Alpine lakes in Spain

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Alpine lakes located in the Central Pyrenees region of northeast Spain are unaffected by anthropogenic factors and are oligotrophic lakes, making them ideal indicators for sediment input and environmental change. Within the collected samples of one study, a high diversity of airborne microorganisms were detected and had a strong similarities to Mauritian soils despite Saharan dust storms occurring at the time of detection.[20] Though not definite, it's possible that impacts on soil, deposition, and air-water interface can be predicted.

Affected ocean species

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The types and sizes of bioaerosols vary in marine environments and are discharged largely via emissions of wet-discharges caused by changes in osmotic pressure or surface tension. Some types of marine originated bioaerosols have dry-discharges of fungal spores that are transported by the wind.[7]

Carribbean sea fans and sea urchins underwent a die-off event in 1983, correlating with dust storms originating from Africa. This was determined with the help of microbiologists and a Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer, identifying bacteria, virus, and fungus in the dust clouds that were tracked over the Atlantic Ocean.[19] In 1997, the El Niño might have affected a seasonal pattern in the tradewinds from Africa to Barbados that microrganisms follow, allowing for potential modeling to predict future events.[21]

Spread of diseases

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The aerosolization of bacteria in dust contributes heavily to the transport of bacterial pathogens. A well known case of meningococcal meningitis outbreak in sub-Saharan Africa was linked to dust storms during dry seasons. Other outbreaks have been reportedly linked to dust events including Mycoplasma pneumonia and tuberculosis.[3]

Common sources of bioaerosols include soil, water, and sewage. Bioaerosols can transmit microbial pathogens, endotoxins, and allergens[22] as well as produce both endotoxins and exotoxins, which they excrete. Exotoxins can be transported through the air and distribute pathogens that humans are sensitive to. Cyanobacteria are of particularly prolific in their pathogen distribution and are abundant in both terrestrial and aquatic environments.[7]

An increase in human respiratory problems for Carribean-region residents might be caused by traces of heavy metals, microorganisms, and pesticides transported via dust clouds traveling over the Atlantic Ocean.[19][23]

Stachybotrys chartarum is a well-known toxic mold which releases mycotoxins and has been named the cause of infant deaths in Cleveland, Ohio. Subsequent and extensive reanalysis of the cases by the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention did not find any link between the deaths and the mold exposure.[24]

Future research

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The potential role of bioaerosols in climate change has brought future research opportunities to light. Specific areas of study include monitoring bioaerosol impacts on different ecosystems and using meteorological data to forecast ecosystem changes.[5] Determining global interactions is possible through methods like collecting air samples, DNA extraction from bioaerosols, and PCR amplification.[2]

Current solutions to minimize the spread of harmful pathogens include tracking occurrences through an atmospheric modelling tool, Atmospheric Dispersion Modelling System (ADMS 3), that uses computational fluid dynamics (CFD) to locate potential problem areas. Modelling system development will reduce the spread of human disease and benefit economic and ecologic factors.[3]

Agroecosystems have an array of potential future research avenues within aeromicrobiology. Identification of deteriorated soils may identify sources of plant or animal pathogens.[4]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Cox, Christopher S.; Wathes, Christopher M. (1995). Bioaerosols handbook. ISBN 0-87371-615-9.
  2. ^ a b c Smith, David J.; Timonen, Hilkka J.; Jaffe, Daniel A.; Griffin, Dale W; Birmele, Michele N.; Perry, Kevin D; Ward, Peter D.; Roberts, Michael S. (2013). "Intercontinental Dispersal of Bacteria and Archaea by Transpacific Winds". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 79 (4): 1134–1139. doi:10.1128/AEM.03029-12. PMC 3568602. PMID 23220959.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i Smets, Wenke; Moretti, Serena; Denys, Siegfried; Lebeer, Sarah (2016). "Airborne bacteria in the atmosphere: Presence, purpose, and potential". Atmospheric Environment. 139: 214–221. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2016.05.038.
  4. ^ a b c Acosta-Martínez, V.; Van Pelt, S.; Moore-Kucera, J.; Baddock, M.C.; Zobeck, T.M. (2015). "Microbiology of wind-eroded sediments: Current knowledge and future research directions". Aeolian Research. 18: 99–113. doi:10.1016/j.aeolia.2015.06.001.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h Núñez, Andrés; Amo de Paz, Guillermo; Rastrojo, Alberto; García, Ana M.; Alcamí, Antonio; Gutiérrez-Bustillo, A. Montserrat; Moreno, Diego A. (2016-03-01). "Monitoring of airborne biological particles in outdoor atmosphere. Part 1: Importance, variability and ratios". International Microbiology: The Official Journal of the Spanish Society for Microbiology. 19 (1): 1–13. doi:10.2436/20.1501.01.258. ISSN 1139-6709. PMID 27762424.
  6. ^ Brandl, Helmut; et al. (2008). "Short-Term Dynamic Patterns of Bioaerosol Generation and Displacement in an Indoor Environment" (PDF). International Journal of Aerobiology. 24 (4): 203–209. doi:10.1007/s10453-008-9099-x. S2CID 83705988. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |first= (help)
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Fröhlich-Nowoisky, Janine; Kampf, Christopher J.; Weber, Bettina; Huffman, J. Alex; Pöhlker, Christopher; Andreae, Meinrat O.; Lang-Yona, Naama; Burrows, Susannah M.; Gunthe, Sachin S. (2016-12-15). "Bioaerosols in the Earth system: Climate, health, and ecosystem interactions". Atmospheric Research. 182: 346–376. doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2016.07.018.
  8. ^ Sattler, Birgit; Puxbaum, Hans; Psenner, Roland (2001). "Bacterial growth in supercooled cloud droplets". Geophysical Research Letters. 28 (2): 239–42. Bibcode:2001GeoRL..28..239S. doi:10.1029/2000GL011684. S2CID 129784139.
  9. ^ "Mycological/Entomological Instruments and Apparatus". www.burkard.co.uk.
  10. ^ Vincent, James H. (2007-04-04). Aerosol Sampling: Science, Standards, Instrumentation and Applications. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9780470060223.
  11. ^ "Andersen Cascade Impactor (ACI)". www.copleyscientific.com.
  12. ^ Smith, David J.; Thakrar, Prital J.; Bharrat, Anthony E.; Dokos, Adam G.; Kinney, Teresa L.; James, Leandro M.; Lane, Michael A.; Khodadad, Christina L.; Maguire, Finlay (2014-12-31). "A Balloon-Based Payload for Exposing Microorganisms in the Stratosphere (E-MIST)". Gravitational and Space Research. 2 (2): 70–80. doi:10.2478/gsr-2014-0019. ISSN 2332-7774. S2CID 130076615.
  13. ^ Christner, Brent C. (2012). "Cloudy with a Chance of Microbes: Terrestrial microbes swept into clouds can catalyze the freezing of water and may influence precipitation on a global scale". Microbe.
  14. ^ a b Kellogg, Christina A.; Griffin, Dale W. (2006). "Aerobiology and the global transport of desert dust". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 21 (11): 638–644. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2006.07.004. PMID 16843565.
  15. ^ Barberán, Albert; Ladau, Joshua; Leff, Jonathan W.; Pollard, Katherine S.; Menninger, Holly L.; Dunn, Robert R.; Fierer, Noah (2015-05-05). "Continental-scale distributions of dust-associated bacteria and fungi". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 112 (18): 5756–5761. doi:10.1073/pnas.1420815112. ISSN 1091-6490. PMC 4426398. PMID 25902536.
  16. ^ Crutzen, Paul J.; Stoermer, Eugene F. (2000). "The "Anthropocene"". International Geosphere–Biosphere Programme Global Change Newsletter.
  17. ^ Crutzen, Paul J. (2002-01-03). "Geology of mankind". Nature. 415 (6867): 23. doi:10.1038/415023a. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 11780095. S2CID 9743349.
  18. ^ J., Schmidt, Laurie (2001-05-18). "From the Dust Bowl to the Sahel : Feature Articles". earthobservatory.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2017-03-13.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  19. ^ a b c J., Schmidt, Laurie (2001-05-18). "When the Dust Settles : Feature Articles". earthobservatory.nasa.gov.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  20. ^ Barberán, Albert; Henley, Jessica; Fierer, Noah; Casamayor, Emilio O. (2014-07-15). "Structure, inter-annual recurrence, and global-scale connectivity of airborne microbial communities". Science of the Total Environment. 487: 187–195. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.04.030. PMID 24784743.
  21. ^ Prospero, Joseph M.; Blades, Edmund; Mathison, George; Naidu, Raana (2005). "Interhemispheric transport of viable fungi and bacteria from Africa to the Caribbean with soil dust" (PDF). Aerobiologia. 21: 1–19. doi:10.1007/s10453-004-5872-7. S2CID 16644704.
  22. ^ Pillai, Suresh D; Ricke, Steven C (2002). "Bioaerosols from municipal and animal wastes: background and contemporary issues". Canadian Journal of Microbiology. 48 (8): 681–96. doi:10.1139/w02-070. PMID 12381025.
  23. ^ Limited, Jamaica Observer. "African dust clouds worry Caribbean scientists - News". Jamaica Observer. {{cite web}}: |last= has generic name (help)
  24. ^ "Update: Pulmonary Hemorrhage/Hemosiderosis Among Infants ---Cleveland, Ohio, 1993-1996". www.cdc.gov.
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