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User:Jvalenti23/Salinispora

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Salinispora is a genus of obligately aerobic, gram-positive, non-acid-fast Actinobacteria which are non-motile and obligately grows under high osmotic/ionic-strength conditions.[1][2][3] They are heterotrophic and they are unique in that they are the only identified genus of gram-positive bacteria which has a high osmotic/ionic-strength requirement for survival. They are widely abundant in tropical marine sediments and were first identified in 2002. This genus of bacteria has potential biotechnological significance due to their production of novel secondary metabolites which can be used pharmaceutically.[4]

There are nine known species that fall within the genus of Salinispora including the better studied S. arenicola, S. tropica, and S. pacifica.[5][6] The clade that initially included only S. pacifica was further interrogated through comparative genomic analyses in 2020 to reveal six additional species: Salinispora cortesiana sp. nov., Salinispora fenicalii sp. nov., Salinispora goodfellowii sp. nov., Salinispora mooreana sp. nov., Salinispora oceanensis sp. nov., and Salinispora vitiensis sp. nov. The differentiation of these species is likely the result of niche differentiation rather than allopatric speciation due to the species co-occurrence.[7] Despite there being high sequence similarity between Salinispora genomes (>99% 16S rRNA sequence identity), species and strain based differences between biosynthetic gene clusters and products have been determined.[8][9]

Characteristics

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Salinispora members are gram-positive, filamentous bacteria which form extensively branched hyphae with smooth surfaced spores that can occur in clusters or singles. During sporulation, spores may disseminate from short spore-bearing protrusions (sporophores) or directly from the base (sessile).[2][3] They produce a range of pigments including dark brown, black, orange, and pink.[1] They likely spend a considerable amount of time in the resting stage as spores,[10][11] with a much larger abundance and distribution of spores relative to growing individuals. They have been shown in culture to preferentially grow at the upper sediment layers where blooms at the sediment-seawater interface have been observed.[11]

Salinispora is the first identified gram-positive bacterial genus which requires a high osmotic/ionic-strength environment to survive. However, it has been shown that sodium concentrations experienced in marine environments can be replaced with potassium and lithium. The required ionic-strength differs between different Salinispora species but is likely due to the loss of the mscL transporter in the cell membranes in all species.[12][13]

Species and strains within Salinispora produce a wide variety of secondary metabolites. It is likely that the biosynthetic gene clusters producing these secondary metabolites were initially acquired via horizontal gene transfer, potentially explaining the high sequence similarity between species and strains.[9][14] The wide array of different biosynthetic gene products may have also contributed to niche differentiation. The large production of species/strains’ particular secondary metabolite lends evidence to the importance of them in bacterial survival, and can potentially be used to identify specific species and strains within Salinispora.[15][16]

 
Salinispora Sampling Locations

Distribution

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Salinispora are commonly found in tropical and subtropical near-shore marine sediments of the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans. They have been detected at depths up to 5699m (undetermined whether actively growing or spores) and confirmed to be growing at depths up to 1,100 m.[10][11] Whether their distribution may include higher latitudes or why they are limited to equatorial regions is not yet known. Additionally, their distribution may not be limited to sediments as they have also been isolated from sponges and seaweeds. There is currently limited research done on the distribution of Salinispora.

The majority of the S. tropica isolates have been isolated in the Caribbean while the rest have been identified in all three oceans, with S. arenicola being the most geographically abundant.

Pharmaceutical Significance

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Salinispora has been used as a model for analyzing genome sequence data in order to further uncover biosynthetic pathways among bacteria. This has been an integral part of research into using microbial natural products as leads for the discovery of traditional natural products and potential new drugs.[2] By viewing the evolutionary histories and diversity of the genus, researchers have been able to uncover mechanisms behind the strategies bacteria use to generate chemical diversity and produce diverse secondary metabolites.[2][16] These various new secondary metabolites in Salinispora species have been identified as potentially pharmaceutically valuable. Salinispora species can be distinguished by the natural products that each species produces.[17]

Salinispora arenicola secondary metabolites

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Salinispora arenicola secondary metabolites have a broad range of pharmaceutical applications. There are over 20 natural compounds that can be isolated from Salinispora arenicola (e.g., arenamides, arenicolides, arenimycins or salinisporamycin). The potential applications for these compounds are extensive. Over nine compounds are related to cancer cells or cancer precursor inhibition; other compounds have shown antibiotic abilities for resistant bacteria, yeast and fungi. Cycloaspeptides could be a potential treatment for asthma, as it is slightly toxic to lung fibroblasts, the human lung cells responsible for inflammation. Other compounds could be used in treatments for heavy metal poisoning or cholesterol-lowering[17].

Salinispora pacifica secondary metabolites

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Although the list of Salinispora pacifica natural compounds identified is not as extensive as found in S. arenicola, the potential pharmaceutical use of these metabolites is of great interest. Some metabolites are effective at inhibiting cancer growth. Cyanosporasides [18], for example, were found to be a potential inhibitor of human colon carcinoma. Other metabolites can be used as antioxidants or antibiotics[17]. This species also includes some metabolites that can act as immunosuppressants. Mycalamide A was found to be a potential antiviral, antitumor and even a possible HIV treatment, as it inhibits the activation of the preferred T cell host of HIV [19]. Pacificanones A and B [20] are other metabolites with immunosuppressant capacities and possible applications in the treatment of allergies.

Lomaiviticins A and B

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Salinispora pacifica produces a cytotoxic family of secondary metabolites called lomaiviticins. They were the first compounds isolated from the genus Salinispora, with the structures being published in 2001. It was initially reported that the producing bacterial strain was a new Micromonospora species with "Micromonospora lomaivitiensis" as the proposed name. Further gene sequence analysis revealed that the strain was in fact S. pacifica.[21]

Lomaiviticins are aromatic polyketides in the angucycline family and share a diazo group similar to kinamycins.[22] There are two classes of this natural product: lomaiviticin A and lomaiviticin B. Both classes demonstrate potent activity that is damaging to DNA, and is observed to be highly cytotoxic against human cancer cells. Lomaiviticin A in particular generates the greatest activity and is the most abundant of the two.[23]

Due to their unique molecular architecture and biological activities, lomaiviticins are an ideal natural product for chemical synthesis. However, notwithstanding the interest shown by the synthetic chemistry community, total synthesis of lomaiviticins has not yet been achieved and the enzymatic chemistry associated with lomaiviticin assembly has not yet been extensively researched.[24] From studying their distinctive structure, it is theorized that the synthesis of this product will lead to many novel enzymatic transformations. In addition to driving the discovery of new analogs through metabolic engineering or chemoenzymatic synthesis, further research could uncover applicable tools for biocatalysis and metabolic engineering.[22][24]

Salinispora tropica secondary metabolites

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The number of secondary metabolites identified and isolated from Salinispora tropica is fewer than the two other species. However, the pharmaceutical and clinical relevance of these metabolites is much higher. As of yet Salinosporamide is the most successful secondary metabolite of Salinisopora from the clinical point of view. It has already been moved into human trials, and it has shown to be a strong anti-cancer agent[25]. Salinispora tropica also produces antiprotealide, another anti-cancer agent which is potentially the strongest cancer inhibitor within the Salinospora secondary metabolite lists. This natural compound is a very potent cytotoxin for myeloma cells [26].

References

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  1. ^ a b Mincer, Tracy J.; Jensen, Paul R.; Kauffman, Christopher A.; Fenical, William (2002). "Widespread and Persistent Populations of a Major New Marine Actinomycete Taxon in Ocean Sediments". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 68 (10): 5005–5011. doi:10.1128/aem.68.10.5005-5011.2002. ISSN 0099-2240. PMC 126404. PMID 12324350.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  2. ^ a b c d Maldonado, Luis A.; Fenical, William; Jensen, Paul R.; Kauffman, Christopher A.; Mincer, Tracy J.; Ward, Alan C.; Bull, Alan T.; Goodfellow, MichaelYR 2005. "Salinispora arenicola gen. nov., sp. nov. and Salinispora tropica sp. nov., obligate marine actinomycetes belonging to the family Micromonosporaceae". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 55 (5): 1759–1766. doi:10.1099/ijs.0.63625-0. ISSN 1466-5034.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  3. ^ a b Jensen, Paul R.; Maldonado, Luis A.; Goodfellow, Michael (2015-09-14). "Salinispora". Bergey's Manual of Systematics of Archaea and Bacteria: 1–10. doi:10.1002/9781118960608.gbm00151.
  4. ^ Jensen, Paul R.; Moore, Bradley S.; Fenical, William (2015). "The marine actinomycete genus Salinispora: a model organism for secondary metabolite discovery". Natural Product Reports. 32 (5): 738–751. doi:10.1039/C4NP00167B. ISSN 0265-0568. PMC 4414829. PMID 25730728.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  5. ^ Román-Ponce, Brenda; Millán-Aguiñaga, Natalie; Guillen-Matus, Dulce; Chase, Alexander B.; Ginigini, Joape G.M.; Soapi, Katy; Feussner, Klaus D.; Jensen, Paul R.; Trujillo, Martha E.YR 2020. "Six novel species of the obligate marine actinobacterium Salinispora, Salinispora cortesiana sp. nov., Salinispora fenicalii sp. nov., Salinispora goodfellowii sp. nov., Salinispora mooreana sp. nov., Salinispora oceanensis sp. nov. and Salinispora vitiensis sp. nov., and emended description of the genus Salinispora". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 70 (8): 4668–4682. doi:10.1099/ijsem.0.004330. ISSN 1466-5034. PMC 7660244. PMID 32701422.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  6. ^ Millán-Aguiñaga, Natalie; Chavarria, Krystle L.; Ugalde, Juan A.; Letzel, Anne-Catrin; Rouse, Greg W.; Jensen, Paul R. (2017). "Phylogenomic Insight into Salinispora (Bacteria, Actinobacteria) Species Designations". Scientific Reports. 7 (1): 3564. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-02845-3. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 5472633. PMID 28620214.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  7. ^ Jensen, Paul R.; Mafnas, Chrisy (2006-11). "Biogeography of the marine actinomycete Salinispora". Environmental Microbiology. 8 (11): 1881–1888. doi:10.1111/j.1462-2920.2006.01093.x. ISSN 1462-2912. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  8. ^ Bauermeister, Anelize; Velasco-Alzate, Karen; Dias, Tiago; Macedo, Helena; Ferreira, Elthon G.; Jimenez, Paula C.; Lotufo, Tito M. C.; Lopes, Norberto P.; Gaudêncio, Susana P.; Costa-Lotufo, Letícia V. (2018-12-11). "Metabolomic Fingerprinting of Salinispora From Atlantic Oceanic Islands". Frontiers in Microbiology. 9: 3021. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2018.03021. ISSN 1664-302X. PMC 6297358. PMID 30619120.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  9. ^ a b Jensen, Paul R.; Williams, Philip G.; Oh, Dong-Chan; Zeigler, Lisa; Fenical, William (2007-02-15). "Species-Specific Secondary Metabolite Production in Marine Actinomycetes of the Genus Salinispora". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 73 (4): 1146–1152. doi:10.1128/AEM.01891-06. ISSN 0099-2240. PMC 1828645. PMID 17158611.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  10. ^ a b Prieto-Davó, Alejandra; Villarreal-Gómez, Luis J.; Forschner-Dancause, Stephanie; Bull, Alan T.; Stach, James E.M.; Smith, David C.; Rowley, Dave C.; Jensen, Paul R. (2013-06). "Targeted search for actinomycetes from nearshore and deep-sea marine sediments". FEMS Microbiology Ecology. 84 (3): 510–518. doi:10.1111/1574-6941.12082. PMC 3654085. PMID 23360553. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  11. ^ a b c Mincer, Tracy J.; Fenical, William; Jensen, Paul R. (2005-11). "Culture-Dependent and Culture-Independent Diversity within the Obligate Marine Actinomycete Genus Salinispora". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 71 (11): 7019–7028. doi:10.1128/AEM.71.11.7019-7028.2005. ISSN 0099-2240. PMC 1287694. PMID 16269737. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  12. ^ Tsueng, Ginger; Lam, Kin Sing (2010-05-01). "A preliminary investigation on the growth requirement for monovalent cations, divalent cations and medium ionic strength of marine actinomycete Salinispora". Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 86 (5): 1525–1534. doi:10.1007/s00253-009-2424-7. ISSN 1432-0614.
  13. ^ Bucarey, Sergio A.; Penn, Kevin; Paul, Lauren; Fenical, William; Jensen, Paul R. (2012-06-15). "Genetic Complementation of the Obligate Marine Actinobacterium Salinispora tropica with the Large Mechanosensitive Channel Gene mscL Rescues Cells from Osmotic Downshock". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 78 (12): 4175–4182. doi:10.1128/aem.00577-12. ISSN 0099-2240. PMC 3370544. PMID 22492446. {{cite journal}}: line feed character in |title= at position 128 (help)CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  14. ^ Nett, Markus; Moore, Bradley S. (2009-05-05). "Exploration and engineering of biosynthetic pathways in the marine actinomycete Salinispora tropica". Pure and Applied Chemistry. 81 (6): 1075–1084. doi:10.1351/PAC-CON-08-08-08. ISSN 1365-3075.
  15. ^ Bose, Utpal; Hewavitharana, Amitha K.; Vidgen, Miranda E.; Ng, Yi Kai; Shaw, P. Nicholas; Fuerst, John A.; Hodson, Mark P. (2014-03-12). Chaturvedi, Vishnu (ed.). "Discovering the Recondite Secondary Metabolome Spectrum of Salinispora Species: A Study of Inter-Species Diversity". PLoS ONE. 9 (3): e91488. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0091488. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3951395. PMID 24621594.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  16. ^ a b Ziemert, Nadine; Lechner, Anna; Wietz, Matthias; Millán-Aguiñaga, Natalie; Chavarria, Krystle L.; Jensen, Paul Robert (2014-03-10). "Diversity and evolution of secondary metabolism in the marine actinomycete genus Salinispora". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 111 (12). doi:10.1073/pnas.1324161111. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 3970525. PMID 24616526. {{cite journal}}: line feed character in |title= at position 81 (help)CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  17. ^ a b c Kim, Haerin; Kim, Sohee; Kim, Minju; Lee, Chaeyoung; Yang, Inho; Nam, Sang-Jip (2020-12-01). "Bioactive natural products from the genus Salinospora: a review". Archives of Pharmacal Research. 43 (12): 1230–1258. doi:10.1007/s12272-020-01288-1. ISSN 1976-3786.
  18. ^ Kersten, Roland D.; Lane, Amy L.; Nett, Markus; Richter, Taylor K. S.; Duggan, Brendan M.; Dorrestein, Pieter C.; Moore, Bradley S. (2013-05-03). "Bioactivity-Guided Genome Mining Reveals the Lomaiviticin Biosynthetic Gene Cluster inSalinispora tropica". ChemBioChem. 14 (8): 955–962. doi:10.1002/cbic.201300147. ISSN 1439-4227. PMC 3755882. PMID 23649992.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  19. ^ Yang, Kai-Xuan; Ji, Dong-Sheng; Zheng, Haixue; Gu, Yucheng; Xu, Peng-Fei (2022). "Organocatalytic inverse-electron-demand Diels–Alder reaction between 5-alkenyl thiazolones and β,γ-unsaturated carbonyl compounds". Chemical Communications. 58 (26): 4227–4230. doi:10.1039/D2CC00457G. ISSN 1359-7345.
  20. ^ Oh, Dong-Chan; Gontang, Erin A.; Kauffman, Christopher A.; Jensen, Paul R.; Fenical, William (2008-04-01). "Salinipyrones and Pacificanones, Mixed-Precursor Polyketides from the Marine Actinomycete Salinispora pacifica". Journal of Natural Products. 71 (4): 570–575. doi:10.1021/np0705155. ISSN 0163-3864. PMC 2820078. PMID 18321059.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  21. ^ Jensen, Paul R.; Moore, Bradley S.; Fenical, William (2015). "The marine actinomycete genus Salinispora: a model organism for secondary metabolite discovery". Natural Product Reports. 32 (5): 738–751. doi:10.1039/C4NP00167B. ISSN 0265-0568. PMC 4414829. PMID 25730728.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  22. ^ a b Janso, Jeffrey E.; Haltli, Brad A.; Eustáquio, Alessandra S.; Kulowski, Kerry; Waldman, Abraham J.; Zha, Li; Nakamura, Hitomi; Bernan, Valerie S.; He, Haiyin; Carter, Guy T.; Koehn, Frank E. (2014-07-08). "Discovery of the lomaiviticin biosynthetic gene cluster in Salinispora pacifica". Tetrahedron. Tetrahedron Young Investigator Award 2014 A divergent strategy enables the synthesis of three architecturally distinct ent-kauranoids from γ-cyclogeraniol Sarah E. Reisman. 70 (27): 4156–4164. doi:10.1016/j.tet.2014.03.009. ISSN 0040-4020. PMC 4101813. PMID 25045187.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  23. ^ He, Haiyin; Ding, Wei-Dong; Bernan, Valerie S.; Richardson, Adam D.; Ireland, Chris M.; Greenstein, Michael; Ellestad, George A.; Carter, Guy T. (2001-06-01). "Lomaiviticins A and B, Potent Antitumor Antibiotics from Micromonospora lomaivitiensis". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 123 (22): 5362–5363. doi:10.1021/ja010129o. ISSN 0002-7863.
  24. ^ a b Srinivas., Achanta, (2009). Studies toward the synthesis of lomaiviticins A and B and englerin A. Washington University. OCLC 671642940.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  25. ^ Chauhan, Dharminder; Catley, Laurence; Li, Guilan; Podar, Klaus; Hideshima, Teru; Velankar, Mugdha; Mitsiades, Constantine; Mitsiades, Nicolas; Yasui, Hiroshi; Letai, Anthony; Ovaa, Huib (2005-11). "A novel orally active proteasome inhibitor induces apoptosis in multiple myeloma cells with mechanisms distinct from Bortezomib". Cancer Cell. 8 (5): 407–419. doi:10.1016/j.ccr.2005.10.013. ISSN 1535-6108. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  26. ^ Manam, Rama Rao; Macherla, Venkat R.; Tsueng, Ginger; Dring, Chris W.; Weiss, Jeffrey; Neuteboom, Saskia T. C.; Lam, Kin S.; Potts, Barbara C. (2009-02-27). "Antiprotealide Is a Natural Product". Journal of Natural Products. 72 (2): 295–297. doi:10.1021/np800578e. ISSN 0163-3864.
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