Solar System
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the Sun and its planetary system. For other similar systems, see Star system and Planetary system.
Solar System
The Sun and planets of the Solar System
(sizes but not distances are to scale).
Age
4.568 billion years
Location
Local Interstellar Cloud, Local Bubble,
Orion–Cygnus Arm, Milky Way
System mass
1.0014 Solar masses
Nearest star
Proxima Centauri (4.22 ly)
Alpha Centauri system (4.37 ly)
Nearest known planetary system
Alpha Centauri system (4.37 ly)
Planetary system
Semi-major axis of outer planet (Neptune)
30.10 AU (4.503 billion km)
Distance to Kuiper cliff
50 AU
Populations
Stars
1 (Sun)
Planets
8 (Mercury · Venus · Earth · Mars ·
Jupiter · Saturn · Uranus · Neptune)
Known dwarf planets
Possibly several hundred;[1]
five currently recognized by the IAU
(Ceres · Pluto · Haumea · Makemake · Eris)
Known natural satellites
443
(173 planetary[2] ·
270 minor planetary[3])
Known minor planets
684,463 (as of 2015-05-18)[4]
Known comets
3,340 (as of 2015-05-18)[4]
Identified rounded satellites
19
Orbit about Galactic Center
Invariable-to-galactic plane inclination
60.19° (ecliptic)
Distance to Galactic Center
27,000 ± 1,000 ly
Orbital speed
220 km/s
Orbital period
225–250 Myr
Star-related properties
Spectral type
G2V
Frost line
≈5 AU[5]
Distance to heliopause
≈120 AU
Hill sphere radius
≈1–2 ly
Solar System
Objects
by orbit ·
by size ·
by discovery date
Lists
Gravitationally-rounded
(equilibrium) objects
Possible dwarf planets
Moons (natural satellites) Minor planets
Comets · Asteroids
Solar System portal
Star portal
v · t · e
The Solar System[a] comprises the Sun and the objects that orbit it, either directly or indirectly.[b] Of those objects that orbit the Sun directly, the largest eight are the planets[c] that form the planetary system around it, while the remainder are significantly smaller objects, such as dwarf planets and small Solar System bodies such as comets and asteroids.[d] Of those that orbit the Sun indirectly, two are larger than the smallest planet.
The Solar System formed 4.6 billion years ago from the gravitational collapse of a giant interstellar molecular cloud. The vast majority of the system's mass is in the Sun, with most of the remaining mass contained in Jupiter. The four smaller inner planets, Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars, are terrestrial planets, being primarily composed of rock and metal. The four outer planets are giant planets, being substantially more massive than the terrestrials. The two largest, Jupiter and Saturn, are gas giants, being composed mainly of hydrogen and helium; the two outermost planets, Uranus and Neptune, are ice giants, being composed largely of substances with relatively high melting points compared with hydrogen and helium, called ices, such as water, ammonia and methane. All planets have almost circular orbits that lie within a nearly flat disc called the ecliptic.
The Solar System also contains smaller objects.[d] The asteroid belt, which lies between Mars and Jupiter, mostly contains objects composed, like the terrestrial planets, of rock and metal. Beyond Neptune's orbit lie the Kuiper belt and scattered disc, populations of trans-Neptunian objects composed mostly of ices, and beyond them a newly discovered population of sednoids. Within these populations are several dozen to possibly tens of thousands of objects large enough to have been rounded by their own gravity.[10] Such objects are categorized as dwarf planets. Identified dwarf planets include the asteroid Ceres and the trans-Neptunian objects Pluto and Eris.[d] In addition to these two regions, various other small-body populations, including comets, centaurs and interplanetary dust, freely travel between regions. Six of the planets, at least three of the dwarf planets, and many of the smaller bodies are orbited by natural satellites,[e] usually termed "moons" after Earth's Moon. Each of the outer planets is encircled by planetary rings of dust and other small objects.
The solar wind, plasma flowing outwards from the Sun, creates a bubble in the interstellar medium known as the heliosphere. The heliopause is the point at which pressure from the solar wind is equal to the opposing pressure of interstellar wind; it extends out to the edge of the scattered disc. The Oort cloud, which is believed to be the source for long-period comets, may also exist at a distance roughly a thousand times further than the heliosphere. The Solar System is located in the Orion Arm, 26,000 light-years from the center of the Milky Way.
Contents
[hide] 1 Discovery and exploration 2 Structure and composition 2.1 Distances and scales
3 Formation and evolution
4 Sun 5 Interplanetary medium 6 Inner Solar System 6.1 Inner planets 6.1.1 Mercury 6.1.2 Venus 6.1.3 Earth 6.1.4 Mars
6.2 Asteroid belt 6.2.1 Ceres
6.2.2 Asteroid groups
7 Outer Solar System 7.1 Outer planets 7.1.1 Jupiter
7.1.2 Saturn 7.1.3 Uranus 7.1.4 Neptune
7.2 Centaurs
8 Comets
9 Trans-Neptunian region 9.1 Kuiper belt 9.1.1 Pluto and Charon 9.1.2 Makemake and Haumea
9.2 Scattered disc 9.2.1 Eris
10 Farthest regions 10.1 Heliopause
10.2 Detached objects 10.3 Oort cloud 10.4 Boundaries
11 Galactic context 11.1 Neighbourhood
12 Visual summary
13 See also 14 Notes 15 References 16 External links
Discovery and exploration
Andreas Cellarius's illustration of the Copernican system, from the Harmonia Macrocosmica (1660) Main article: Discovery and exploration of the Solar System
For many thousands of years, humanity, with a few notable exceptions, did not recognize the existence of the Solar System. People believed Earth to be stationary at the centre of the universe and categorically different from the divine or ethereal objects that moved through the sky. Although the Greek philosopher Aristarchus of Samos had speculated on a heliocentric reordering of the cosmos, Nicolaus Copernicus was the first to develop a mathematically predictive heliocentric system.[11][12] In the 17th-century, Galileo Galilei, Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton, developed an understanding of physics that led to the gradual acceptance of the idea that Earth moves around the Sun and that the planets are governed by the same physical laws that governed Earth. The invention of the telescope led to the discovery of further planets and moons. Improvements in the telescope and the use of unmanned spacecraft have enabled the investigation of geological phenomena, such as mountains, craters, seasonal meteorological phenomena, such as clouds, dust storms and ice caps on the other planets.
Structure and composition
The orbits of the bodies in the Solar System to scale (clockwise from top left) The principal component of the Solar System is the Sun, a G2 main-sequence star that contains 99.86% of the system's known mass and dominates it gravitationally.[13] The Sun's four largest orbiting bodies, the giant planets, account for 99% of the remaining mass, with Jupiter and Saturn together comprising more than 90%. The remaining objects of the Solar System (including the four terrestrial planets, the dwarf planets, moons, asteroids, and comets) together comprise less than 0.002% of the Solar System's total mass.[f]
Most large objects in orbit around the Sun lie near the plane of Earth's orbit, known as the ecliptic. The planets are very close to the ecliptic, whereas comets and Kuiper belt objects are frequently at significantly greater angles to it.[17][18] All the planets and most other objects orbit the Sun in the same direction that the Sun is rotating (counter-clockwise, as viewed from above Earth's north pole).[19] There are exceptions, such as Halley's Comet.
The overall structure of the charted regions of the Solar System consists of the Sun, four relatively small inner planets surrounded by a belt of mostly rocky asteroids, and four giant planets surrounded by the Kuiper belt of mostly icy objects. Astronomers sometimes informally divide this structure into separate regions. The inner Solar System includes the four terrestrial planets and the asteroid belt. The outer Solar System is beyond the asteroids, including the four giant planets.[20] Since the discovery of the Kuiper belt, the outermost parts of the Solar System are considered a distinct region consisting of the objects beyond Neptune.[21]
Most of the planets in the Solar System possess secondary systems of their own, being orbited by planetary objects called natural satellites, or moons (two of which are larger than the planet Mercury), and, in the case of the four giant planets, by planetary rings, thin bands of tiny particles that orbit them in unison. Most of the largest natural satellites are in synchronous rotation, with one face permanently turned toward their parent.
Kepler's laws of planetary motion describe the orbits of objects about the Sun. Following Kepler's laws, each object travels along an ellipse with the Sun at one focus. Objects closer to the Sun (with smaller semi-major axes) travel more quickly because they are more affected by the Sun's gravity. On an elliptical orbit, a body's distance from the Sun varies over the course of its year. A body's closest approach to the Sun is called its perihelion, whereas its most distant point from the Sun is called its aphelion. The orbits of the planets are nearly circular, but many comets, asteroids, and Kuiper belt objects follow highly elliptical orbits. The positions of the bodies in the Solar System can be predicted using numerical models.
Solar System showing the plane of Earth's orbit around the Sun in 3D. Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars are shown in both panels; the right panel also shows Jupiter making one full revolution with Saturn and Uranus making less than one full revolution.
Although the Sun dominates the system by mass, it accounts for only about 2% of the angular momentum.[22][23] The planets, dominated by Jupiter, account for most of the rest of the angular momentum due to the combination of their mass, orbit, and distance from the Sun, with a possibly significant contribution from comets.[22]
The Sun, which comprises nearly all the matter in the Solar System, is composed of roughly 98% hydrogen and helium.[24] Jupiter and Saturn, which comprise nearly all the remaining matter, possess atmospheres composed of roughly 99% of these elements.[25][26] A composition gradient exists in the Solar System, created by heat and light pressure from the Sun; those objects closer to the Sun, which are more affected by heat and light pressure, are composed of elements with high melting points. Objects farther from the Sun are composed largely of materials with lower melting points.[27] The boundary in the Solar System beyond which those volatile substances could condense is known as the frost line, and it lies at roughly 5 AU from the Sun.[5]
The objects of the inner Solar System are composed mostly of rock,[28] the collective name for compounds with high melting points, such as silicates, iron or nickel, that remained solid under almost all conditions in the protoplanetary nebula.[29] Jupiter and Saturn are composed mainly of gases, the astronomical term for materials with extremely low melting points and high vapour pressure, such as hydrogen, helium, and neon, which were always in the gaseous phase in the nebula.[29] Ices, like water, methane, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide,[28] have melting points up to a few hundred kelvins.[29] They can be found as ices, liquids, or gases in various places in the Solar System, whereas in the nebula they were either in the solid or gaseous phase.[29] Icy substances comprise the majority of the satellites of the giant planets, as well as most of Uranus and Neptune (the so-called "ice giants") and the numerous small objects that lie beyond Neptune's orbit.[28][30] Together, gases and ices are referred to as volatiles.[31]
Voyager 1 views the Solar System from over 6 billion km from Earth.
Venus, Earth ("Pale Blue Dot"), Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune (September 13, 1996).
Distances and scales
Planets of the Solar System to scale. Jupiter and Saturn (top row), Uranus and Neptune (top middle), Earth and Venus (bottom middle), Mars and Mercury. The distance from Earth to the Sun is 1 astronomical unit (150,000,000 km), or AU. For comparison, the radius of the Sun is 0.0047 AU (700,000 km). Thus, the Sun occupies 0.00001% (10−5 %) of the volume of a sphere with a radius the size of Earth's orbit, whereas Earth's volume is roughly one millionth (10−6) that of the Sun. Jupiter, the largest planet, is 5.2 astronomical units (780,000,000 km) from the Sun and has a radius of 71,000 km (0.00047 AU), whereas the most distant planet, Neptune, is 30 AU (4.5×109 km) from the Sun.
With a few exceptions, the farther a planet or belt is from the Sun, the larger the distance between its orbit and the orbit of the next nearer object to the Sun. For example, Venus is approximately 0.33 AU farther out from the Sun than Mercury, whereas Saturn is 4.3 AU out from Jupiter, and Neptune lies 10.5 AU out from Uranus. Attempts have been made to determine a relationship between these orbital distances (for example, the Titius–Bode law),[32] but no such theory has been accepted. The images at the beginning of this section show the orbits of the various constituents of the Solar System on different scales.
Some Solar System models attempt to convey the relative scales involved in the Solar System on human terms. Some are small in scale (and may be mechanical—called orreries)—whereas others extend across cities or regional areas.[33] The largest such scale model, the Sweden Solar System, uses the 110-metre (361-ft) Ericsson Globe in Stockholm as its substitute Sun, and, following the scale, Jupiter is a 7.5-metre (25-foot) sphere at Arlanda International Airport, 40 km (25 mi) away, whereas the farthest current object, Sedna, is a 10-cm (4-in) sphere in Luleå, 912 km (567 mi) away.[34][35]
If the Sun–Neptune distance is scaled to 100 metres, then the Sun would be about 3 cm in diameter (roughly two-thirds the diameter of a golf ball), the giant planets would be all smaller than about 3 mm, and Earth's diameter along with the that of the other terrestrial planets would be smaller than a flea (0.3 mm) at this scale.[36]
Distances of selected bodies of the Solar System from the Sun. The left and right edges of each bar correspond to the perihelion and aphelion of the body, respectively. Long bars denote high orbital eccentricity. The radius of the Sun is 0.7 million km, and the radius of Jupiter (the largest planet) is 0.07 million km, both too small to resolve on this image.
Formation and evolution
Main article: Formation and evolution of the Solar System
Artist's concept of the early Solar System The Solar System formed 4.568 billion years ago from the gravitational collapse of a region within a large molecular cloud.[37] This initial cloud was likely several light-years across and probably birthed several stars.[38] As is typical of molecular clouds, this one consisted mostly of hydrogen, with some helium, and small amounts of heavier elements fused by previous generations of stars. As the region that would become the Solar System, known as the pre-solar nebula,[39] collapsed, conservation of angular momentum caused it to rotate faster. The centre, where most of the mass collected, became increasingly hotter than the surrounding disc.[38] As the contracting nebula rotated faster, it began to flatten into a protoplanetary disc with a diameter of roughly 200 AU[38] and a hot, dense protostar at the centre.[40][41] The planets formed by accretion from this disc,[42] in which dust and gas gravitationally attracted each other, coalescing to form ever larger bodies. Hundreds of protoplanets may have existed in the early Solar System, but they either merged or were destroyed, leaving the planets, dwarf planets, and leftover minor bodies.
Due to their higher boiling points, only metals and silicates could exist in solid form in the warm inner Solar System close to the Sun, and these would eventually form the rocky planets of Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars. Because metallic elements only comprised a very small fraction of the solar nebula, the terrestrial planets could not grow very large. The giant planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) formed further out, beyond the frost line, the point between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter where material is cool enough for volatile icy compounds to remain solid. The ices that formed these planets were more plentiful than the metals and silicates that formed the terrestrial inner planets, allowing them to grow massive enough to capture large atmospheres of hydrogen and helium, the lightest and most abundant elements. Leftover debris that never became planets congregated in regions such as the asteroid belt, Kuiper belt, and Oort cloud. The Nice model is an explanation for the creation of these regions and how the outer planets could have formed in different positions and migrated to their current orbits through various gravitational interactions.
Within 50 million years, the pressure and density of hydrogen in the centre of the protostar became great enough for it to begin thermonuclear fusion.[43] The temperature, reaction rate, pressure, and density increased until hydrostatic equilibrium was achieved: the thermal pressure equalled the force of gravity. At this point, the Sun became a main-sequence star.[44] The main-sequence phase, from beginning to end, will last about 10 billion years for the Sun compared to around two billion years for all other phases of the Sun's pre-remnant life combined.[45] Solar wind from the Sun created the heliosphere and swept away the remaining gas and dust from the protoplanetary disc into interstellar space, ending the planetary formation process. The Sun is growing brighter; early in its main-sequence life its brightness was 70% that of what it is today.[46]
The Solar System will remain roughly as we know it today until the hydrogen in the core of the Sun has been entirely converted to helium, which will occur roughly 5 billion years from now. This will mark the end of the Sun's main-sequence life. At this time, the core of the Sun will collapse, and the energy output will be much greater than at present. The outer layers of the Sun will expand to roughly 260 times its current diameter, and the Sun will become a red giant. Because of its vastly increased surface area, the surface of the Sun will be considerably cooler (2,600 K at its coolest) than it is on the main sequence.[45] The expanding Sun is expected to vaporize Mercury and Venus and render Earth uninhabitable as the habitable zone moves out to the orbit of Mars. Eventually, the core will be hot enough for helium fusion; the Sun will burn helium for a fraction of the time it burned hydrogen in the core. The Sun is not massive enough to commence the fusion of heavier elements, and nuclear reactions in the core will dwindle. Its outer layers will move away into space, leaving a white dwarf, an extraordinarily dense object, half the original mass of the Sun but only the size of Earth.[47] The ejected outer layers will form what is known as a planetary nebula, returning some of the material that formed the Sun—but now enriched with heavier elements like carbon—to the interstellar medium.
Sun
Main article: Sun
The Sun compared to the planets The Sun is the Solar System's star and by far its most massive component. Its large mass (332,900 Earth masses)[48] produces temperatures and densities in its core high enough to sustain nuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium, making it a main-sequence star.[49] This releases an enormous amount of energy, mostly radiated into space as electromagnetic radiation peaking in visible light.[50]
The Sun is a G2-type main-sequence star. Hotter main-sequence stars are more luminous. The Sun's temperature is intermediate between that of the hottest stars and that of the coolest stars. Stars brighter and hotter than the Sun are rare, whereas substantially dimmer and cooler stars, known as red dwarfs, make up 85% of the stars in the Milky Way.[51][52]
The Sun is a population I star; it has a higher abundance of elements heavier than hydrogen and helium ("metals" in astronomical parlance) than the older population II stars.[53] Elements heavier than hydrogen and helium were formed in the cores of ancient and exploding stars, so the first generation of stars had to die before the Universe could be enriched with these atoms. The oldest stars contain few metals, whereas stars born later have more. This high metallicity is thought to have been crucial to the Sun's development of a planetary system because the planets form from the accretion of "metals".[54]
Interplanetary medium
The heliospheric current sheet Main articles: Interplanetary medium, Heliosphere and Solar wind
The vast majority of the Solar System consists of a near-vacuum known as the interplanetary medium. Along with light, the Sun radiates a continuous stream of charged particles (a plasma) known as the solar wind. This stream of particles spreads outwards at roughly 1.5 million km per hour,[55] creating a tenuous atmosphere (the heliosphere) that permeates the interplanetary medium out to at least 100 AU (see heliopause).[56] Activity on the Sun's surface, such as solar flares and coronal mass ejections, disturb the heliosphere, creating space weather and causing geomagnetic storms.[57] The largest structure within the heliosphere is the heliospheric current sheet, a spiral form created by the actions of the Sun's rotating magnetic field on the interplanetary medium.[58][59]
Earth's magnetic field stops its atmosphere from being stripped away by the solar wind.[60] Venus and Mars do not have magnetic fields, and as a result the solar wind is causing their atmospheres to gradually bleed away into space.[61] Coronal mass ejections and similar events blow a magnetic field and huge quantities of material from the surface of the Sun. The interaction of this magnetic field and material with Earth's magnetic field funnels charged particles into Earth's upper atmosphere, where its interactions create aurorae seen near the magnetic poles.
The heliosphere and planetary magnetic fields (for those planets that have them) partially shield the Solar System from high-energy interstellar particles called cosmic rays. The density of cosmic rays in the interstellar medium and the strength of the Sun's magnetic field change on very long timescales, so the level of cosmic-ray penetration in the Solar System varies, though by how much is unknown.[62]
The interplanetary medium is home to at least two disc-like regions of cosmic dust. The first, the zodiacal dust cloud, lies in the inner Solar System and causes the zodiacal light. It was likely formed by collisions within the asteroid belt brought on by gravitational interactions with the planets.[63] The second dust cloud extends from about 10 AU to about 40 AU, and was probably created by similar collisions within the Kuiper belt.[64][65]
Inner Solar System
The inner Solar System is the traditional name for the region comprising the terrestrial planets and asteroids.[66] Composed mainly of silicates and metals, the objects of the inner Solar System are relatively close to the Sun; the radius of this entire region is less than the distance between the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn. This region is also within the frost line, which is a little less than 5 AU (about 700 million km) from the Sun.[67]
Inner planets
Main article: Terrestrial planet
The inner planets. From left to right: Earth, Mars, Venus, and Mercury (sizes to scale) The four inner or terrestrial planets have dense, rocky compositions, few or no moons, and no ring systems. They are composed largely of refractory minerals, such as the silicates, which form their crusts and mantles, and metals, such as iron and nickel, which form their cores. Three of the four inner planets (Venus, Earth and Mars) have atmospheres substantial enough to generate weather; all have impact craters and tectonic surface features, such as rift valleys and volcanoes. The term inner planet should not be confused with inferior planet, which designates those planets that are closer to the Sun than Earth is (i.e. Mercury and Venus).
Mercury
Main article: Mercury
Mercury (0.4 AU from the Sun) is the closest planet to the Sun and the smallest planet in the Solar System (0.055 Earth masses). Mercury has no natural satellites; besides impact craters, its only known geological features are lobed ridges or rupes that were probably produced by a period of contraction early in its history.[68] Mercury's very tenuous atmosphere consists of atoms blasted off its surface by the solar wind.[69] Its relatively large iron core and thin mantle have not yet been adequately explained. Hypotheses include that its outer layers were stripped off by a giant impact; or, that it was prevented from fully accreting by the young Sun's energy.[70][71]
Venus
Main article: Venus
Venus (0.7 AU from the Sun) is close in size to Earth (0.815 Earth masses) and, like Earth, has a thick silicate mantle around an iron core, a substantial atmosphere, and evidence of internal geological activity. It is much drier than Earth, and its atmosphere is ninety times as dense. Venus has no natural satellites. It is the hottest planet, with surface temperatures over 400 °C (752°F), most likely due to the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.[72] No definitive evidence of current geological activity has been detected on Venus, but it has no magnetic field that would prevent depletion of its substantial atmosphere, which suggests that its atmosphere is being replenished by volcanic eruptions.[73]
Earth
Main article: Earth
Earth (1 AU from the Sun) is the largest and densest of the inner planets, the only one known to have current geological activity, and the only place where life is known to exist.[74] Its liquid hydrosphere is unique among the terrestrial planets, and it is the only planet where plate tectonics has been observed. Earth's atmosphere is radically different from those of the other planets, having been altered by the presence of life to contain 21% free oxygen.[75] It has one natural satellite, the Moon, the only large satellite of a terrestrial planet in the Solar System.
Mars
Main article: Mars
Mars (1.5 AU from the Sun) is smaller than Earth and Venus (0.107 Earth masses). It possesses an atmosphere of mostly carbon dioxide with a surface pressure of 6.1 millibars (roughly 0.6% of that of Earth).[76] Its surface, peppered with vast volcanoes, such as Olympus Mons, and rift valleys, such as Valles Marineris, shows geological activity that may have persisted until as recently as 2 million years ago.[77] Its red colour comes from iron oxide (rust) in its soil.[78] Mars has two tiny natural satellites (Deimos and Phobos) thought to be captured asteroids.[79]
Asteroid belt
Main article: Asteroid belt
Image of the asteroid belt (white), the Jupiter trojans (green), the Hildas (orange), and near-Earth asteroids. Asteroids are small Solar System bodies[d] composed mainly of refractory rocky and metallic minerals, with some ice.[80]
The asteroid belt occupies the orbit between Mars and Jupiter, between 2.3 and 3.3 AU from the Sun. It is thought to be remnants from the Solar System's formation that failed to coalesce because of the gravitational interference of Jupiter.[81]
Asteroids range in size from hundreds of kilometres across to microscopic. All asteroids except the largest, Ceres, are classified as small Solar System bodies.[82]
The asteroid belt contains tens of thousands, possibly millions, of objects over one kilometre in diameter.[83] Despite this, the total mass of the asteroid belt is unlikely to be more than a thousandth of that of Earth.[16] The asteroid belt is very sparsely populated; spacecraft routinely pass through without incident. Asteroids with diameters between 10 and 10−4 m are called meteoroids.[84]
Ceres
Main article: Ceres (dwarf planet)
Ceres (2.77 AU) is the largest asteroid, a protoplanet, and a dwarf planet.[d] It has a diameter of slightly under 1,000 km, and a mass large enough for its own gravity to pull it into a spherical shape. Ceres was considered a planet when it was discovered in 1801, and was reclassified to asteroid in the 1850s as further observations revealed additional asteroids.[85] It was classified as a dwarf planet in 2006 when the definition of a planet was created.
Asteroid groups
Asteroids in the asteroid belt are divided into asteroid groups and families based on their orbital characteristics. Asteroid moons are asteroids that orbit larger asteroids. They are not as clearly distinguished as planetary moons, sometimes being almost as large as their partners. The asteroid belt also contains main-belt comets, which may have been the source of Earth's water.[86]
Jupiter trojans are located in either of Jupiter's L4 or L5 points (gravitationally stable regions leading and trailing a planet in its orbit); the term "trojan" is also used for small bodies in any other planetary or satellite Lagrange point. Hilda asteroids are in a 2:3 resonance with Jupiter; that is, they go around the Sun three times for every two Jupiter orbits.[87]
The inner Solar System is also dusted with Near-Earth asteroids, many of which cross the orbits of the inner planets.[88]
Outer Solar System
The outer region of the Solar System is home to the giant planets and their large moons. The centaurs and many short-period comets also orbit in this region. Due to their greater distance from the Sun, the solid objects in the outer Solar System contain a higher proportion of volatiles, such as water, ammonia, and methane than those of the inner Solar System because the lower temperatures allow these compounds to remain solid.
Outer planets
Main articles: Outer planets and Giant planet
From top to bottom: Neptune, Uranus, Saturn, and Jupiter (Montage with approximate colour and size) The four outer planets, or giant planets (sometimes called Jovian planets), collectively make up 99% of the mass known to orbit the Sun.[f] Jupiter and Saturn are each many tens of times the mass of Earth and consist overwhelmingly of hydrogen and helium; Uranus and Neptune are far less massive (<20 Earth masses) and possess more ices in their makeup. For these reasons, some astronomers suggest they belong in their own category, "ice giants".[89] All four giant planets have rings, although only Saturn's ring system is easily observed from Earth. The term superior planet designates planets outside Earth's orbit and thus includes both the outer planets and Mars.
Jupiter
Main article: Jupiter
Jupiter (5.2 AU), at 318 Earth masses, is 2.5 times the mass of all the other planets put together. It is composed largely of hydrogen and helium. Jupiter's strong internal heat creates semi-permanent features in its atmosphere, such as cloud bands and the Great Red Spot. Jupiter has 67 known satellites. The four largest, Ganymede, Callisto, Io, and Europa, show similarities to the terrestrial planets, such as volcanism and internal heating.[90] Ganymede, the largest satellite in the Solar System, is larger than Mercury.
Saturn
Main article: Saturn
Saturn (9.5 AU), distinguished by its extensive ring system, has several similarities to Jupiter, such as its atmospheric composition and magnetosphere. Although Saturn has 60% of Jupiter's volume, it is less than a third as massive, at 95 Earth masses, making it the least dense planet in the Solar System.[91] The rings of Saturn are made up of small ice and rock particles. Saturn has 62 confirmed satellites; two of which, Titan and Enceladus, show signs of geological activity, though they are largely made of ice.[92] Titan, the second-largest moon in the Solar System, is larger than Mercury and the only satellite in the Solar System with a substantial atmosphere.
Uranus
Main article: Uranus
Uranus (19.2 AU), at 14 Earth masses, is the lightest of the outer planets. Uniquely among the planets, it orbits the Sun on its side; its axial tilt is over ninety degrees to the ecliptic. It has a much colder core than the other giant planets and radiates very little heat into space.[93] Uranus has 27 known satellites, the largest ones being Titania, Oberon, Umbriel, Ariel, and Miranda.
Neptune
Main article: Neptune
Neptune (30.1 AU), though slightly smaller than Uranus, is more massive (equivalent to 17 Earths) and hence more dense. It radiates more internal heat, but not as much as Jupiter or Saturn.[94] Neptune has 14 known satellites. The largest, Triton, is geologically active, with geysers of liquid nitrogen.[95] Triton is the only large satellite with a retrograde orbit. Neptune is accompanied in its orbit by several minor planets, termed Neptune trojans, that are in 1:1 resonance with it.
Centaurs
Main article: Centaur (minor planet)
The centaurs are icy comet-like bodies whose orbits have semi-major axes greater than Jupiter's (5.5 AU) and less than Neptune's (30 AU). The largest known centaur, 10199 Chariklo, has a diameter of about 250 km.[96] The first centaur discovered, 2060 Chiron, has also been classified as comet (95P) because it develops a coma just as comets do when they approach the Sun.[97]
Comets
Main article: Comet
Comet Hale–Bopp Comets are small Solar System bodies,[d] typically only a few kilometres across, composed largely of volatile ices. They have highly eccentric orbits, generally a perihelion within the orbits of the inner planets and an aphelion far beyond Pluto. When a comet enters the inner Solar System, its proximity to the Sun causes its icy surface to sublimate and ionise, creating a coma: a long tail of gas and dust often visible to the naked eye.
Short-period comets have orbits lasting less than two hundred years. Long-period comets have orbits lasting thousands of years. Short-period comets are believed to originate in the Kuiper belt, whereas long-period comets, such as Hale–Bopp, are believed to originate in the Oort cloud. Many comet groups, such as the Kreutz Sungrazers, formed from the breakup of a single parent.[98] Some comets with hyperbolic orbits may originate outside the Solar System, but determining their precise orbits is difficult.[99] Old comets that have had most of their volatiles driven out by solar warming are often categorised as asteroids.[100]
Trans-Neptunian region
The area beyond Neptune, or the "trans-Neptunian region", is still largely unexplored. It appears to consist overwhelmingly of small worlds (the largest having a diameter only a fifth that of Earth and a mass far smaller than that of the Moon) composed mainly of rock and ice. This region is sometimes known as the "outer Solar System", though others use that term to mean the region beyond the asteroid belt.
Kuiper belt
Main article: Kuiper belt
Known objects in the Kuiper belt as of January 2015.
Sun
Jupiter trojans
Giant planets
Kuiper belt
Scattered disc
Neptune trojans
The Kuiper belt is a great ring of debris similar to the asteroid belt, but consisting mainly of objects composed primarily of ice.[101] It extends between 30 and 50 AU from the Sun. Though it is estimated to contain anything from dozens to thousands of dwarf planets, it is composed mainly of small Solar System bodies. Many of the larger Kuiper belt objects, such as Quaoar, Varuna, and Orcus, may prove to be dwarf planets with further data. There are estimated to be over 100,000 Kuiper belt objects with a diameter greater than 50 km, but the total mass of the Kuiper belt is thought to be only a tenth or even a hundredth the mass of Earth.[15] Many Kuiper belt objects have multiple satellites,[102] and most have orbits that take them outside the plane of the ecliptic.[103]
The Kuiper belt can be roughly divided into the "classical" belt and the resonances.[101] Resonances are orbits linked to that of Neptune (e.g. twice for every three Neptune orbits, or once for every two). The first resonance begins within the orbit of Neptune itself. The classical belt consists of objects having no resonance with Neptune, and extends from roughly 39.4 AU to 47.7 AU.[104] Members of the classical Kuiper belt are classified as cubewanos, after the first of their kind to be discovered, (15760) 1992 QB1, and are still in near primordial, low-eccentricity orbits.[105]
Pluto and Charon
Artistic comparison of Eris, Pluto, Makemake, Haumea, Sedna, 2007 OR10, Quaoar, Orcus, and Earth.
(
This box: view · talk · edit
)
Main articles: Pluto (dwarf planet) and Charon (moon)
The dwarf planet Pluto (39 AU average) is the largest known object in the Kuiper belt. When discovered in 1930, it was considered to be the ninth planet; this changed in 2006 with the adoption of a formal definition of planet. Pluto has a relatively eccentric orbit inclined 17 degrees to the ecliptic plane and ranging from 29.7 AU from the Sun at perihelion (within the orbit of Neptune) to 49.5 AU at aphelion.
Charon, Pluto's largest moon, is sometimes described as part of a binary system with Pluto, as the two bodies orbit a barycentre of gravity above their surfaces (i.e. they appear to "orbit each other"). Beyond Charon, four much smaller moons, Styx, Nix, Kerberos, and Hydra, are known to orbit within the system.
Pluto has a 3:2 resonance with Neptune, meaning that Pluto orbits twice round the Sun for every three Neptunian orbits. Kuiper belt objects whose orbits share this resonance are called plutinos.[106]
Makemake and Haumea
Main articles: Makemake and Haumea
Makemake (45.79 AU average), although smaller than Pluto, is the largest known object in the classical Kuiper belt (that is, a Kuiper belt object not in a confirmed resonance with Neptune). Makemake is the brightest object in the Kuiper belt after Pluto. It was named and designated a dwarf planet in 2008.[7] Its orbit is far more inclined than Pluto's, at 29°.[107]
Haumea (43.13 AU average) is in an orbit similar to Makemake except that it is in a 7:12 orbital resonance with Neptune.[108] It is about the same size as Makemake and has two natural satellites. A rapid, 3.9-hour rotation gives it a flattened and elongated shape. It was named and designated a dwarf planet in 2008.[109]
Scattered disc
Main article: Scattered disc
The scattered disc, which overlaps the Kuiper belt but extends much further outwards, is thought to be the source of short-period comets. Scattered disc objects are believed to have been ejected into erratic orbits by the gravitational influence of Neptune's early outward migration. Most scattered disc objects (SDOs) have perihelia within the Kuiper belt but aphelia far beyond it (some more than 150 AU from the Sun). SDOs' orbits are also highly inclined to the ecliptic plane and are often almost perpendicular to it. Some astronomers consider the scattered disc to be merely another region of the Kuiper belt and describe scattered disc objects as "scattered Kuiper belt objects".[110] Some astronomers also classify centaurs as inward-scattered Kuiper belt objects along with the outward-scattered residents of the scattered disc.[111]
Eris
Main article: Eris (dwarf planet)
Eris (68 AU average) is the largest known scattered disc object, and caused a debate about what constitutes a planet, because it is 25% more massive than Pluto[112] and about the same diameter. It is the most massive of the known dwarf planets. It has one known moon, Dysnomia. Like Pluto, its orbit is highly eccentric, with a perihelion of 38.2 AU (roughly Pluto's distance from the Sun) and an aphelion of 97.6 AU, and steeply inclined to the ecliptic plane.
Farthest regions
The point at which the Solar System ends and interstellar space begins is not precisely defined because its outer boundaries are shaped by two separate forces: the solar wind and the Sun's gravity. The outer limit of the solar wind's influence is roughly four times Pluto's distance from the Sun; this heliopause is considered the beginning of the interstellar medium.[56] The Sun's Hill sphere, the effective range of its gravitational dominance, is believed to extend up to a thousand times farther.[113]
Heliopause
Energetic neutral atoms map of heliosheath and heliopause by IBEX. Credit: NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Scientific Visualization Studio. The heliosphere is divided into two regions; the solar wind travels at roughly 400 km/s until it collides with the interstellar wind; the flow of plasma in the interstellar medium. The collision occurs at the termination shock, which is roughly 80–100 AU from the Sun upwind of the interstellar medium and roughly 200 AU from the Sun downwind.[114] Here the wind slows dramatically, condenses and becomes more turbulent,[114] forming a great oval structure known as the heliosheath. This structure is believed to look and behave very much like a comet's tail, extending outward for a further 40 AU on the upwind side but tailing many times that distance downwind; evidence from the Cassini and Interstellar Boundary Explorer spacecraft has suggested that it is forced into a bubble shape by the constraining action of the interstellar magnetic field.[115] The outer boundary of the heliosphere, the heliopause, is the point at which the solar wind finally terminates and is the beginning of interstellar space.[56] Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 are reported to have passed the termination shock and entered the heliosheath, at 94 and 84 AU from the Sun, respectively.[116][117] Voyager 1 is reported to have crossed the heliopause in August, 2012.[118]
The shape and form of the outer edge of the heliosphere is likely affected by the fluid dynamics of interactions with the interstellar medium as well as solar magnetic fields prevailing to the south, e.g. it is bluntly shaped with the northern hemisphere extending 9 AU farther than the southern hemisphere.[114] Beyond the heliopause, at around 230 AU, lies the bow shock, a plasma "wake" left by the Sun as it travels through the Milky Way.[119]
Due to a lack of data, conditions in local interstellar space are not known for certain. It is expected that NASA's Voyager spacecraft, as they pass the heliopause, will transmit valuable data on radiation levels and solar wind to Earth.[120] How well the heliosphere shields the Solar System from cosmic rays is poorly understood. A NASA-funded team has developed a concept of a "Vision Mission" dedicated to sending a probe to the heliosphere.[121][122]
Detached objects
Main articles: Detached object and Sednoid
90377 Sedna (520 AU average) is a large, reddish object with a gigantic, highly elliptical orbit that takes it from about 76 AU at perihelion to 940 AU at aphelion and takes 11,400 years to complete. Mike Brown, who discovered the object in 2003, asserts that it cannot be part of the scattered disc or the Kuiper belt because its perihelion is too distant to have been affected by Neptune's migration. He and other astronomers consider it to be the first in an entirely new population, sometimes termed "distant detached objects" (DDOs), which also may include the object 2000 CR105, which has a perihelion of 45 AU, an aphelion of 415 AU, and an orbital period of 3,420 years.[123] Brown terms this population the "inner Oort cloud" because it may have formed through a similar process, although it is far closer to the Sun.[124] Sedna is very likely a dwarf planet, though its shape has yet to be determined. The second unequivocally detached object, with a perihelion farther than Sedna's at roughly 81 AU, is 2012 VP113, discovered in 2012. Its aphelion is only half that of Sedna's, at 400–500 AU.[125][126]
Oort cloud
Main article: Oort cloud
An artist's rendering of the Oort cloud, the Hills cloud, and the Kuiper belt (inset) The Oort cloud is a hypothetical spherical cloud of up to a trillion icy objects that is believed to be the source for all long-period comets and to surround the Solar System at roughly 50,000 AU (around 1 light-year (ly)), and possibly to as far as 100,000 AU (1.87 ly). It is believed to be composed of comets that were ejected from the inner Solar System by gravitational interactions with the outer planets. Oort cloud objects move very slowly, and can be perturbed by infrequent events, such as collisions, the gravitational effects of a passing star, or the galactic tide, the tidal force exerted by the Milky Way.[127][128]
Boundaries
See also: Vulcanoid asteroid and Planets beyond Neptune
Much of the Solar System is still unknown. The Sun's gravitational field is estimated to dominate the gravitational forces of surrounding stars out to about two light years (125,000 AU). Lower estimates for the radius of the Oort cloud, by contrast, do not place it farther than 50,000 AU.[129] Despite discoveries such as Sedna, the region between the Kuiper belt and the Oort cloud, an area tens of thousands of AU in radius, is still virtually unmapped. There are also ongoing studies of the region between Mercury and the Sun.[130] Objects may yet be discovered in the Solar System's uncharted regions.
Galactic context
Position of the Solar System within the Milky Way
The Solar System is located in the Milky Way, a barred spiral galaxy with a diameter of about 100,000 light-years containing about 200 billion stars.[131] The Sun resides in one of the Milky Way's outer spiral arms, known as the Orion–Cygnus Arm or Local Spur.[132] The Sun lies between 25,000 and 28,000 light years from the Galactic Centre,[133] and its speed within the Milky Way is about 220 kilometres per second (140 mi/s), so that it completes one revolution every 225–250 million years. This revolution is known as the Solar System's galactic year.[134] The solar apex, the direction of the Sun's path through interstellar space, is near the constellation Hercules in the direction of the current location of the bright star Vega.[135] The plane of the ecliptic lies at an angle of about 60° to the galactic plane.[g]
The Solar System's location in the Milky Way is a factor in the evolution of life on Earth. Its orbit is close to circular, and orbits near the Sun are at roughly the same speed as that of the spiral arms.[137][138] Therefore, the Sun passes through arms only rarely. Because spiral arms are home to a far larger concentration of supernovae, gravitational instabilities, and radiation that could disrupt the Solar System, this has given Earth long periods of stability for life to evolve.[137] The Solar System also lies well outside the star-crowded environs of the galactic centre. Near the centre, gravitational tugs from nearby stars could perturb bodies in the Oort Cloud and send many comets into the inner Solar System, producing collisions with potentially catastrophic implications for life on Earth. The intense radiation of the galactic centre could also interfere with the development of complex life.[137] Even at the Solar System's current location, some scientists have speculated that recent supernovae may have adversely affected life in the last 35,000 years, by flinging pieces of expelled stellar core towards the Sun, as radioactive dust grains and larger, comet-like bodies.[139]
Neighbourhood
Beyond the heliosphere is the interstellar medium, consisting of various clouds of gases. (see Local Interstellar Cloud) The Solar System is in the Local Interstellar Cloud or Local Fluff. It is thought to be near the neighbouring G-Cloud but it is not known if the Solar System is embedded in the Local Interstellar Cloud, or if it is in the region where the Local Interstellar Cloud and G-Cloud are interacting.[140][141] The Local Interstellar Cloud is an area of denser cloud in an otherwise sparse region known as the Local Bubble, an hourglass-shaped cavity in the interstellar medium roughly 300 light years across. The bubble is suffused with high-temperature plasma, that suggests it is the product of several recent supernovae.[142]
There are relatively few stars within ten light years (95 trillion km, or 60 trillion mi) of the Sun. The closest is the triple star system Alpha Centauri, which is about 4.4 light years away. Alpha Centauri A and B are a closely tied pair of Sun-like stars, whereas the small red dwarf Alpha Centauri C (also known as Proxima Centauri) orbits the pair at a distance of 0.2 light years. The stars next closest to the Sun are the red dwarfs Barnard's Star (at 5.9 light years), Wolf 359 (7.8 light years), and Lalande 21185 (8.3 light years). The largest star within ten light years is Sirius, a bright main-sequence star roughly 8.6 light years away and roughly twice the Sun's mass and that is orbited by a white dwarf, Sirius B. The nearest brown dwarfs are the binary Luhman 16 system at 6.6 light years. The remaining systems within ten light years are the binary red-dwarf system Luyten 726-8 (8.7 light years) and the solitary red dwarf Ross 154 (9.7 light years).[143] The closest solitary Sun-like star to the Solar System is Tau Ceti at 11.9 light years. It has roughly 80% of the Sun's mass but only 60% of its luminosity.[144] The closest known extrasolar planet to the Sun orbits Alpha Centauri B. This planet, Alpha Centauri Bb, is at least 1.1 times Earth's mass and orbits its star every 3.236 days.[145] The closest known free-floating planetary-mass object to the Sun is WISE 0855−0714,[146] an object with a mass less than 10 Jupiter masses located roughly 7 light years away.
A diagram of Earth's location in the observable Universe. (Click here for an alternate image.) Visual summary
This section is a sampling of Solar System bodies, selected for size and quality of imagery, and sorted by volume. Some omitted objects are larger than the ones included here, notably Eris, because these have not been imaged in high quality.
Solar System
Sun
(star)
Jupiter
(planet)
Saturn
(planet)
Uranus
(planet)
Neptune
(planet)
Earth
(planet)
Venus
(planet)
Mars
(planet)
Ganymede
(moon of Jupiter)
Titan
(moon of Saturn)
Mercury
(planet)
Callisto
(moon of Jupiter)
Io
(moon of Jupiter)
Moon
(moon of Earth)
Europa
(moon of Jupiter)
Triton
(moon of Neptune)
Pluto
(Kuiper belt object)
Titania
(moon of Uranus)
Rhea
(moon of Saturn)
Oberon
(moon of Uranus)
Iapetus
(moon of Saturn)
Umbriel
(moon of Uranus)
Ariel
(moon of Uranus)
Dione
(moon of Saturn)
Tethys
(moon of Saturn)
Ceres
(asteroid)
Vesta
(asteroid)
Enceladus
(moon of Saturn)
Miranda
(moon of Uranus)
Proteus
(moon of Neptune)
Mimas
(moon of Saturn)
Hyperion
(moon of Saturn)
Phoebe
(moon of Saturn)
Janus
(moon of Saturn)
Epimetheus
(moon of Saturn)
This box: view · talk · edit
See also
Book: Solar System
Astronomical symbols
List of gravitationally rounded objects of the Solar System Lists of geological features of the Solar System Planetary mnemonic Solar System in fiction
Notes
a.Jump up ^ Capitalization of the name varies. The IAU, the authoritative body regarding astronomical nomenclature, specifies capitalizing the names of all individual astronomical objects, but uses mixed "Solar System" and "solar system" in their naming guidelines document. The name is commonly rendered in lower case ("solar system"), as, for example, in the Oxford English Dictionary and Merriam-Webster's 11th Collegiate Dictionary.
b.Jump up ^ The moons orbiting the Solar System's planets are an example of the latter. c.Jump up ^ Historically, several other bodies were once considered planets, including, from its discovery in 1930 until 2006, Pluto. See Former planets. d.^ Jump up to: a b c d e f According to current definitions, objects in orbit around the Sun are classified dynamically and physically into three categories: planets, dwarf planets, and small Solar System bodies.
A planet is any body in orbit around the Sun whose mass is sufficient for gravity to have pulled it into a (near-)spherical shape and which has cleared its immediate neighbourhood of all smaller objects. By this definition, the Solar System has eight planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. As it has not cleared its neighbourhood of other Kuiper belt objects, Pluto does not fit this definition.[6]
Instead, Pluto is considered to be a dwarf planet, a body orbiting the Sun that is massive enough to be made near-spherical by its own gravity but which has not cleared planetesimals from its neighbourhood and is also not a satellite.[6] In addition to Pluto, the IAU has recognized four other dwarf planets in the Solar System: Ceres, Haumea, Makemake, and Eris.[7] Other objects commonly (but not officially) treated as dwarf planets include 2007 OR10, Sedna, Orcus, and Quaoar.[8] In a reference to Pluto, other dwarf planets orbiting in the trans-Neptunian region are sometimes called "plutoids".[9]
The remaining objects in orbit around the Sun are known as small Solar System bodies.[6]
e.Jump up ^ See List of natural satellites of the Solar System for the full list of natural satellites of the eight planets and first five dwarf planets. f.^ Jump up to: a b The mass of the Solar System excluding the Sun, Jupiter and Saturn can be determined by adding together all the calculated masses for its largest objects and using rough calculations for the masses of the Oort cloud (estimated at roughly 3 Earth masses),[14] the Kuiper belt (estimated at roughly 0.1 Earth mass)[15] and the asteroid belt (estimated to be 0.0005 Earth mass)[16] for a total, rounded upwards, of ~37 Earth masses, or 8.1% of the mass in orbit around the Sun. With the combined masses of Uranus and Neptune (~31 Earth masses) subtracted, the remaining ~6 Earth masses of material comprise 1.3% of the total orbiting mass. g.Jump up ^ If ψ is the angle between the north pole of the ecliptic and the north galactic pole then: , where 27° 07′ 42.01″ and 12h 51m 26.282 are the declination and right ascension of the north galactic pole,[136] whereas 66° 33′ 38.6″ and 18h 0m 00 are those for the north pole of the ecliptic. (Both pairs of coordinates are for J2000 epoch.) The result of the calculation is 60.19°.
References
1.Jump up ^ Mike Brown (August 23, 2011). "Free the dwarf planets!". "Mike Brown's Planets (self-published)".
2.Jump up ^ Sheppard, Scott S. "The Giant Planet Satellite and Moon Page". Departament of Terrestrial Magnetism at Carniege Institution for science. Retrieved 2015-04-12. 3.Jump up ^ Wm. Robert Johnston (2015-03-28). "Asteroids with Satellites". Johnston's Archive. Retrieved 2015-05-18. 4.^ Jump up to: a b "How Many Solar System Bodies". NASA/JPL Solar System Dynamics. Retrieved 2015-05-18. 5.^ Jump up to: a b Mumma, M. J.; Disanti, M. A.; Dello Russo, N.; Magee-Sauer, K.; Gibb, E.; Novak, R. (2003). "Remote infrared observations of parent volatiles in comets: A window on the early solar system". Advances in Space Research 31 (12): 2563. doi:10.1016/S0273-1177(03)00578-7. edit 6.^ Jump up to: a b c "The Final IAU Resolution on the definition of "planet" ready for voting". IAU. 2006-08-24. Retrieved 2007-03-02. 7.^ Jump up to: a b "Dwarf Planets and their Systems". Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature (WGPSN). U.S. Geological Survey. 2008-11-07. Retrieved 2008-07-13. 8.Jump up ^ Ron Ekers. "IAU Planet Definition Committee". International Astronomical Union. Retrieved 2008-10-13. 9.Jump up ^ "Plutoid chosen as name for Solar System objects like Pluto". International Astronomical Union, Paris. June 11, 2008. Retrieved 2008-06-11. 10.Jump up ^ "Today we know of more than a dozen dwarf planets in the solar system".The PI's Perspective 11.Jump up ^ WC Rufus (1923). "The astronomical system of Copernicus". Popular Astronomy 31: 510. Bibcode:1923PA.....31..510R. 12.Jump up ^ Weinert, Friedel (2009). Copernicus, Darwin, & Freud: revolutions in the history and philosophy of science. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 21. ISBN 978-1-4051-8183-9. 13.Jump up ^ M Woolfson (2000). "The origin and evolution of the solar system". Astronomy & Geophysics 41 (1): 1.12. Bibcode:2000A&G....41a..12W. doi:10.1046/j.1468-4004.2000.00012.x. 14.Jump up ^ Alessandro Morbidelli (2005). "Origin and dynamical evolution of comets and their reservoirs". arXiv:astro-ph/0512256 [astro-ph]. 15.^ Jump up to: a b Audrey Delsanti and David Jewitt (2006). "The Solar System Beyond The Planets" (PDF). Institute for Astronomy, University of Hawaii. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 29, 2007. Retrieved 2007-01-03. 16.^ Jump up to: a b Krasinsky, G. A.; Pitjeva, E. V.; Vasilyev, M. V.; Yagudina, E. I. (July 2002). "Hidden Mass in the Asteroid Belt". Icarus 158 (1): 98–105. Bibcode:2002Icar..158...98K. doi:10.1006/icar.2002.6837. 17.Jump up ^ Levison, H. F.; Morbidelli, A. (2003-11-27). "The formation of the Kuiper belt by the outward transport of bodies during Neptune's migration". Nature 426 (6965): 419–421. Bibcode:2003Natur.426..419L. doi:10.1038/nature02120. PMID 14647375. Retrieved 2012-05-26. 18.Jump up ^ Harold F. Levison, Martin J Duncan (1997). "From the Kuiper Belt to Jupiter-Family Comets: The Spatial Distribution of Ecliptic Comets". Icarus 127 (1): 13–32. Bibcode:1997Icar..127...13L. doi:10.1006/icar.1996.5637. 19.Jump up ^ Grossman, Lisa (13 August 2009). "Planet found orbiting its star backwards for first time". NewScientist. Retrieved 10 October 2009. 20.Jump up ^ nineplanets.org. "An Overview of the Solar System". Retrieved 2007-02-15. 21.Jump up ^ Amir Alexander (2006). "New Horizons Set to Launch on 9-Year Voyage to Pluto and the Kuiper Belt". The Planetary Society. Retrieved 2006-11-08. 22.^ Jump up to: a b Marochnik, L. and Mukhin, L. (1995). "Is Solar System Evolution Cometary Dominated?". In Shostak, G. S. Progress in the Search for Extraterrestrial Life. Astronomical Society of the Pacific Conference Series 74. p. 83. ISBN 0-937707-93-7. 23.Jump up ^ Bi, S. L.; Li, T. D.; Li, L. H.; Yang, W. M. (2011). "Solar Models with Revised Abundance". The Astrophysical Journal 731 (2): L42. arXiv:1104.1032. Bibcode:2011ApJ...731L..42B. doi:10.1088/2041-8205/731/2/L42. edit 24.Jump up ^ "The Sun's Vital Statistics". Stanford Solar Center. Retrieved 2008-07-29., citing Eddy, J. (1979). A New Sun: The Solar Results From Skylab. NASA. p. 37. NASA SP-402. 25.Jump up ^ Williams, Dr. David R. (September 7, 2006). "Saturn Fact Sheet". NASA. Retrieved 2007-07-31. 26.Jump up ^ Williams, Dr. David R. (November 16, 2004). "Jupiter Fact Sheet". NASA. Retrieved 2007-08-08. 27.Jump up ^ Paul Robert Weissman, Torrence V. Johnson (2007). Encyclopedia of the solar system. Academic Press. p. 615. ISBN 0-12-088589-1. 28.^ Jump up to: a b c Podolak, M.; Weizman, A.; Marley, M. (December 1995). "Comparative models of Uranus and Neptune". Planetary and Space Science 43 (12): 1517–1522. Bibcode:1995P&SS...43.1517P. doi:10.1016/0032-0633(95)00061-5. edit 29.^ Jump up to: a b c d Podolak, M.; Podolak, J. I.; Marley, M. S. (February 2000). "Further investigations of random models of Uranus and Neptune". Planetary and Space Science 48 (2–3): 143–151. Bibcode:2000P&SS...48..143P. doi:10.1016/S0032-0633(99)00088-4. edit 30.Jump up ^ Michael Zellik (2002). Astronomy: The Evolving Universe (9th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 240. ISBN 0-521-80090-0. OCLC 223304585 46685453. 31.Jump up ^ Placxo, Kevin W.; Gross, Michael (2006). Astrobiology: a brief introduction. JHU Press. p. 66. ISBN 978-0-8018-8367-5. 32.Jump up ^ "Dawn: A Journey to the Beginning of the Solar System". Space Physics Center: UCLA. 2005. Retrieved 2007-11-03. 33.Jump up ^ Guy Ottewell (1989). "The Thousand-Yard Model |subtitle Earth as a Peppercorn". NOAO Educational Outreach Office. Retrieved 2012-05-10. 34.Jump up ^ "Tours of Model Solar Systems". University of Illinois. Retrieved 2012-05-10. 35.Jump up ^ "Luleå är Sedna. I alla fall om vår sol motsvaras av Globen i Stockholm.". Norrbotten Kuriren (in Swedish). Retrieved 2010-05-10. 36.Jump up ^ See, for example, Office of Space Science. "Solar System Scale". NASA Educator Features. Retrieved 2 April 2013. 37.Jump up ^ The date is based on the oldest inclusions found to date in meteorites, and is thought to be the date of the formation of the first solid material in the collapsing nebula. A. Bouvier and M. Wadhwa. "The age of the solar system redefined by the oldest Pb-Pb age of a meteoritic inclusion." Nature Geoscience, in press, 2010. doi:10.1038/NGEO941 38.^ Jump up to: a b c "Lecture 13: The Nebular Theory of the origin of the Solar System". University of Arizona. Retrieved 2006-12-27. 39.Jump up ^ Irvine, W. M. (1983). "The chemical composition of the pre-solar nebula". Cometary exploration; Proceedings of the International Conference 1. p. 3. Bibcode:1983coex....1....3I. 40.Jump up ^ Greaves, Jane S. (2005-01-07). "Disks Around Stars and the Growth of Planetary Systems". Science 307 (5706): 68–71. Bibcode:2005Sci...307...68G. doi:10.1126/science.1101979. PMID 15637266. 41.Jump up ^ "Present Understanding of the Origin of Planetary Systems". National Academy of Sciences. 2000-04-05. Retrieved 2007-01-19. 42.Jump up ^ Boss, A. P.; Durisen, R. H. (2005). "Chondrule-forming Shock Fronts in the Solar Nebula: A Possible Unified Scenario for Planet and Chondrite Formation". The Astrophysical Journal 621 (2): L137. arXiv:astro-ph/0501592. Bibcode:2005ApJ...621L.137B. doi:10.1086/429160. 43.Jump up ^ Sukyoung Yi; Pierre Demarque; Yong-Cheol Kim; Young-Wook Lee; Chang H. Ree; Thibault Lejeune; Sydney Barnes (2001). "Toward Better Age Estimates for Stellar Populations: The Isochrones for Solar Mixture". Astrophysical Journal Supplement 136: 417. arXiv:astro-ph/0104292. Bibcode:2001ApJS..136..417Y. doi:10.1086/321795. 44.Jump up ^ A. Chrysostomou, P. W. Lucas (2005). "The Formation of Stars". Contemporary Physics 46 (1): 29. Bibcode:2005ConPh..46...29C. doi:10.1080/0010751042000275277. 45.^ Jump up to: a b Schröder, K.-P.; Connon Smith, Robert (May 2008). "Distant future of the Sun and Earth revisited". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 386 (1): 155–163. arXiv:0801.4031. Bibcode:2008MNRAS.386..155S. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13022.x. 46.Jump up ^ Nir J. Shaviv (2003). "Towards a Solution to the Early Faint Sun Paradox: A Lower Cosmic Ray Flux from a Stronger Solar Wind". Journal of Geophysical Research 108 (A12): 1437. arXiv:astroph/0306477. Bibcode:2003JGRA..108.1437S. doi:10.1029/2003JA009997. 47.Jump up ^ Pogge, Richard W. (1997). "The Once & Future Sun". New Vistas in Astronomy. Archived from the original (LECTURE NOTES) on May 27, 2005. Retrieved 2005-12-07. 48.Jump up ^ "Sun: Facts & Figures". NASA. Archived from the original on 2008-01-02. Retrieved 2009-05-14. 49.Jump up ^ Zirker, Jack B. (2002). Journey from the Center of the Sun. Princeton University Press. pp. 120–127. ISBN 978-0-691-05781-1. 50.Jump up ^ "Why is visible light visible, but not other parts of the spectrum?". The Straight Dome. 2003. Retrieved 2009-05-14. 51.Jump up ^ Than, Ker (January 30, 2006). "Astronomers Had it Wrong: Most Stars are Single". SPACE.com. Retrieved 2007-08-01. 52.Jump up ^ Smart, R. L.; Carollo, D.; Lattanzi, M. G.; McLean, B.; Spagna, A. (2001). "The Second Guide Star Catalogue and Cool Stars". In Hugh R. A. Jones and Iain A. Steele. Ultracool Dwarfs: New Spectral Types L and T. Springer. p. 119. Bibcode:2001udns.conf..119S. 53.Jump up ^ T. S. van Albada, Norman Baker (1973). "On the Two Oosterhoff Groups of Globular Clusters". Astrophysical Journal 185: 477–498. Bibcode:1973ApJ...185..477V. doi:10.1086/152434. 54.Jump up ^ Charles H. Lineweaver (2001-03-09). "An Estimate of the Age Distribution of Terrestrial Planets in the Universe: Quantifying Metallicity as a Selection Effect". Icarus 151 (2): 307–313. arXiv:astro-ph/0012399. Bibcode:2001Icar..151..307L. doi:10.1006/icar.2001.6607. 55.Jump up ^ "Solar Physics: The Solar Wind". Marshall Space Flight Center. 2006-07-16. Retrieved 2006-10-03. 56.^ Jump up to: a b c "Voyager Enters Solar System's Final Frontier". NASA. Retrieved 2007-04-02. 57.Jump up ^ Phillips, Tony (2001-02-15). "The Sun Does a Flip". Science@NASA. Retrieved 2007-02-04. 58.Jump up ^ A Star with two North Poles, April 22, 2003, Science @ NASA 59.Jump up ^ Riley, Pete (2002). "Modeling the heliospheric current sheet: Solar cycle variations" (PDF). Journal of Geophysical Research 107. Bibcode:2002JGRA.107g.SSH8R. doi:10.1029/2001JA000299. 60.Jump up ^ "Solar Wind blows some of Earth's atmosphere into space". Science@NASA Headline News. 1998-12-08. 61.Jump up ^ Lundin, Richard (2001-03-09). "Erosion by the Solar Wind". Science 291 (5510): 1909. doi:10.1126/science.1059763. PMID 11245195. 62.Jump up ^ Langner, U. W.; M. S. Potgieter (2005). "Effects of the position of the solar wind termination shock and the heliopause on the heliospheric modulation of cosmic rays". Advances in Space Research 35 (12): 2084–2090. Bibcode:2005AdSpR..35.2084L. doi:10.1016/j.asr.2004.12.005. 63.Jump up ^ "Long-term Evolution of the Zodiacal Cloud". 1998. Retrieved 2007-02-03. 64.Jump up ^ "ESA scientist discovers a way to shortlist stars that might have planets". ESA Science and Technology. 2003. Retrieved 2007-02-03. 65.Jump up ^ Landgraf, M.; Liou, J.-C.; Zook, H. A.; Grün, E. (May 2002). "Origins of Solar System Dust beyond Jupiter" (PDF). The Astronomical Journal 123 (5): 2857–2861. arXiv:astro-ph/0201291. Bibcode:2002AJ....123.2857L. doi:10.1086/339704. Retrieved 2007-02-09. 66.Jump up ^ "Inner Solar System". NASA Science (Planets). Retrieved 2009-05-09. 67.Jump up ^ Frost line or snow line or ice line in the solar system - Astronoo 68.Jump up ^ Schenk P., Melosh H. J. (1994), Lobate Thrust Scarps and the Thickness of Mercury's Lithosphere, Abstracts of the 25th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, 1994LPI....25.1203S 69.Jump up ^ Bill Arnett (2006). "Mercury". The Nine Planets. Retrieved 2006-09-14. 70.Jump up ^ Benz, W.; Slattery, W. L.; Cameron, A. G. W. (1988). "Collisional stripping of Mercury's mantle". Icarus 74: 516–528. Bibcode:1988Icar...74..516B. doi:10.1016/0019-1035(88)90118-2. 71.Jump up ^ Cameron, A. G. W. (1985). "The partial volatilization of Mercury". Icarus 64: 285–294. Bibcode:1985Icar...64..285C. doi:10.1016/0019-1035(85)90091-0. 72.Jump up ^ Mark Alan Bullock (1997). "The Stability of Climate on Venus" (PDF). Southwest Research Institute. Retrieved 2006-12-26. 73.Jump up ^ Paul Rincon (1999). "Climate Change as a Regulator of Tectonics on Venus" (PDF). Johnson Space Center Houston, TX, Institute of Meteoritics, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM. Retrieved 2006-11-19. 74.Jump up ^ "What are the characteristics of the Solar System that lead to the origins of life?". NASA Science (Big Questions). Retrieved 2011-08-30. 75.Jump up ^ Anne E. Egger, M.A./M.S. "Earth's Atmosphere: Composition and Structure". VisionLearning.com. Retrieved 2006-12-26. 76.Jump up ^ David C. Gatling, Conway Leovy (2007). "Mars Atmosphere: History and Surface Interactions". In Lucy-Ann McFadden et al. Encyclopaedia of the Solar System. pp. 301–314. 77.Jump up ^ David Noever (2004). "Modern Martian Marvels: Volcanoes?". NASA Astrobiology Magazine. Retrieved 2006-07-23. 78.Jump up ^ "Mars: A Kid's Eye View". NASA. Retrieved 2009-05-14. 79.Jump up ^ Scott S. Sheppard, David Jewitt, and Jan Kleyna (2004). "A Survey for Outer Satellites of Mars: Limits to Completeness" (PDF). Astronomical Journal. Retrieved 2006-12-26. 80.Jump up ^ "Are Kuiper Belt Objects asteroids? Are large Kuiper Belt Objects planets?". Cornell University. Retrieved 2009-03-01. 81.Jump up ^ Petit, J.-M.; Morbidelli, A.; Chambers, J. (2001). "The Primordial Excitation and Clearing of the Asteroid Belt" (PDF). Icarus 153 (2): 338–347. Bibcode:2001Icar..153..338P. doi:10.1006/icar.2001.6702. Retrieved 2007-03-22. 82.Jump up ^ "IAU Planet Definition Committee". International Astronomical Union. 2006. Retrieved 2009-03-01. 83.Jump up ^ "New study reveals twice as many asteroids as previously believed". ESA. 2002. Retrieved 2006-06-23. 84.Jump up ^ "On the Definition of the Term Meteoroid". Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society 36 (3): 281–284. September 1995. Bibcode:1995QJRAS..36..281B. 85.Jump up ^ "History and Discovery of Asteroids" (DOC). NASA. Retrieved 2006-08-29. 86.Jump up ^ Phil Berardelli (2006). "Main-Belt Comets May Have Been Source Of Earths Water". SpaceDaily. Retrieved 2006-06-23. 87.Jump up ^ Barucci, M. A.; Kruikshank, D.P.; Mottola S.; Lazzarin M. (2002). "Physical Properties of Trojan and Centaur Asteroids". Asteroids III. Tucson, Arizona: University of Arizona Press. pp. 273–87. 88.Jump up ^ W. F. Bottke Jr., A. Cellino, P. Paolicchi, and R. P. Binzel, ed. (January 2002). "Origin and Evolution of Near-Earth Objects" (PDF). Asteroids III (University of Arizona Press): 409–422. Bibcode:2002aste.conf..409M. 89.Jump up ^ Jack J. Lissauer, David J. Stevenson (2006). "Formation of Giant Planets" (PDF). NASA Ames Research Center; California Institute of Technology. Retrieved 2006-01-16. 90.Jump up ^ Pappalardo, R T (1999). "Geology of the Icy Galilean Satellites: A Framework for Compositional Studies". Brown University. Retrieved 2006-01-16. 91.Jump up ^ "Density of Saturn". Fraser Cain. universetoday.com. Retrieved 2013-08-09. 92.Jump up ^ Kargel, J. S. (1994). "Cryovolcanism on the icy satellites". Earth, Moon, and Planets 67: 101–113. Bibcode:1995EM&P...67..101K. doi:10.1007/BF00613296. 93.Jump up ^ "10 Mysteries of the Solar System". Astronomy Now 19: 65. 2005. Bibcode:2005AsNow..19h..65H. 94.Jump up ^ Podolak, M.; Reynolds, R. T.; Young, R. (1990). "Post Voyager comparisons of the interiors of Uranus and Neptune". Geophysical Research Letters 17 (10): 1737. Bibcode:1990GeoRL..17.1737P. doi:10.1029/GL017i010p01737. 95.Jump up ^ Duxbury, N. S., Brown, R. H. (1995). "The Plausibility of Boiling Geysers on Triton". Beacon eSpace. Retrieved 2006-01-16. 96.Jump up ^ John Stansberry, Will Grundy, Mike Brown, Dale Cruikshank, John Spencer, David Trilling, Jean-Luc Margot (2007). "Physical Properties of Kuiper Belt and Centaur Objects: Constraints from Spitzer Space Telescope". The Solar System Beyond Neptune. p. 161. arXiv:astro-ph/0702538. Bibcode:2008ssbn.book..161S. 97.Jump up ^ Patrick Vanouplines (1995). "Chiron biography". Vrije Universitiet Brussel. Retrieved 2006-06-23. 98.Jump up ^ Sekanina, Zdeněk (2001). "Kreutz sungrazers: the ultimate case of cometary fragmentation and disintegration?". Publications of the Astronomical Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic 89: 78–93. Bibcode:2001PAICz..89...78S. 99.Jump up ^ Królikowska, M. (2001). "A study of the original orbits of hyperbolic comets". Astronomy & Astrophysics 376 (1): 316–324. Bibcode:2001A&A...376..316K. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20010945. 100.Jump up ^ Whipple, Fred L. (1992). "The activities of comets related to their aging and origin". Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy 54: 1–11. Bibcode:1992CeMDA..54....1W. doi:10.1007/BF00049540. 101.^ Jump up to: a b Stephen C. Tegler (2007). "Kuiper Belt Objects: Physical Studies". In Lucy-Ann McFadden et al. Encyclopedia of the Solar System. pp. 605–620. 102.Jump up ^ Brown, M. E.; Van Dam, M. A.; Bouchez, A. H.; Le Mignant, D.; Campbell, R. D.; Chin, J. C. Y.; Conrad, A.; Hartman, S. K.; Johansson, E. M.; Lafon, R. E.; Rabinowitz, D. L. Rabinowitz; Stomski, P. J., Jr.; Summers, D. M.; Trujillo, C. A.; Wizinowich, P. L. (2006). "Satellites of the Largest Kuiper Belt Objects" (PDF). The Astrophysical Journal 639 (1): L43–L46. arXiv:astro-ph/0510029. Bibcode:2006ApJ...639L..43B. doi:10.1086/501524. Retrieved 2011-10-19. edit 103.Jump up ^ Chiang, E. I.; Jordan, A. B.; Millis, R. L.; Buie, M. W.; Wasserman, L. H.; Elliot, J. L.; Kern, S. D.; Trilling, D. E.; Meech, K. J. et al. (2003). "Resonance Occupation in the Kuiper Belt: Case Examples of the 5:2 and Trojan Resonances" (PDF). The Astronomical Journal 126 (1): 430–443. arXiv:astro-ph/0301458. Bibcode:2003AJ....126..430C. doi:10.1086/375207. Retrieved 2009-08-15. 104.Jump up ^ M. W. Buie, R. L. Millis, L. H. Wasserman, J. L. Elliot, S. D. Kern, K. B. Clancy, E. I. Chiang, A. B. Jordan, K. J. Meech, R. M. Wagner, D. E. Trilling (2005). "Procedures, Resources and Selected Results of the Deep Ecliptic Survey". Earth, Moon, and Planets 92 (1): 113. arXiv:astro-ph/0309251. Bibcode:2003EM&P...92..113B. doi:10.1023/B:MOON.0000031930.13823.be. 105.Jump up ^ E. Dotto1, M. A. Barucci2, and M. Fulchignoni (2006-08-24). "Beyond Neptune, the new frontier of the Solar System" (PDF). Retrieved 2006-12-26. 106.Jump up ^ Fajans, J.; L. Frièdland (October 2001). "Autoresonant (nonstationary) excitation of pendulums, Plutinos, plasmas, and other nonlinear oscillators" (PDF). American Journal of Physics 69 (10): 1096–1102. Bibcode:2001AmJPh..69.1096F. doi:10.1119/1.1389278. Retrieved 2006-12-26. 107.Jump up ^ Marc W. Buie (2008-04-05). "Orbit Fit and Astrometric record for 136472". SwRI (Space Science Department). Retrieved 2012-07-15. 108.Jump up ^ Michael E. Brown. "The largest Kuiper belt objects" (PDF). CalTech. Retrieved 2012-07-15. 109.Jump up ^ "News Release – IAU0807: IAU names fifth dwarf planet Haumea". International Astronomical Union. 2008-09-17. Retrieved 2012-07-15. 110.Jump up ^ David Jewitt (2005). "The 1000 km Scale KBOs". University of Hawaii. Retrieved 2006-07-16. 111.Jump up ^ "List Of Centaurs and Scattered-Disk Objects". IAU: Minor Planet Center. Retrieved 2007-04-02. 112.Jump up ^ Brown, Michael E.; Schaller, Emily L. (15 June 2007). "The Mass of Dwarf Planet Eris". Science 316 (5831): 1585. Bibcode:2007Sci...316.1585B. doi:10.1126/science.1139415. PMID 17569855. edit 113.Jump up ^ Littmann, Mark (2004). Planets Beyond: Discovering the Outer Solar System. Courier Dover Publications. pp. 162–163. ISBN 978-0-486-43602-9. 114.^ Jump up to: a b c "A 5-fluid hydrodynamic approach to model the Solar System-interstellar medium interaction" (PDF). Astronomy & Astrophysics 357: 268. 2000. Bibcode:2000A&A...357..268F. See Figures 1 and 2. 115.Jump up ^ NASA/JPL (2009). "Cassini's Big Sky: The View from the Center of Our Solar System". Retrieved 2009-12-20. 116.Jump up ^ Stone, E. C.; Cummings, A. C.; McDonald, F. B.; Heikkila, B. C.; Lal, N.; Webber, W. R. (September 2005). "Voyager 1 explores the termination shock region and the heliosheath beyond". Science 309 (5743): 2017–20. Bibcode:2005Sci...309.2017S. doi:10.1126/science.1117684. PMID 16179468. 117.Jump up ^ Stone, E. C.; Cummings, A. C.; McDonald, F. B.; Heikkila, B. C.; Lal, N.; Webber, W. R. (July 2008). "An asymmetric solar wind termination shock". Nature 454 (7200): 71–4. Bibcode:2008Natur.454...71S. doi:10.1038/nature07022. PMID 18596802. 118.Jump up ^ Cook, Jia-Rui C.; Agle, D. C.; Brown, Dwayne (12 September 2013). "NASA Spacecraft Embarks on Historic Journey Into Interstellar Space". NASA. Retrieved 12 September 2013. 119.Jump up ^ P. C. Frisch (University of Chicago) (June 24, 2002). "The Sun's Heliosphere & Heliopause". Astronomy Picture of the Day. Retrieved 2006-06-23. 120.Jump up ^ "Voyager: Interstellar Mission". NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory. 2007. Retrieved 2008-05-08. 121.Jump up ^ R. L. McNutt, Jr. et al. (2006). "Innovative Interstellar Explorer". Physics of the Inner Heliosheath: Voyager Observations, Theory, and Future Prospects. AIP Conference Proceedings 858. pp. 341–347. Bibcode:2006AIPC..858..341M. doi:10.1063/1.2359348. 122.Jump up ^ Anderson, Mark (2007-01-05). "Interstellar space, and step on it!". New Scientist. Retrieved 2007-02-05. 123.Jump up ^ David Jewitt (2004). "Sedna – 2003 VB12". University of Hawaii. Retrieved 2006-06-23. 124.Jump up ^ Mike Brown (2004). "Sedna". CalTech. Retrieved 2007-05-02. 125.Jump up ^ "JPL Small-Body Database Browser: (2012 VP113)" (2013-10-30 last obs). Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Retrieved 2014-03-26. 126.Jump up ^ "A new object at the edge of our Solar System discovered". Physorg.com. 26 March 2014. 127.Jump up ^ Stern SA, Weissman PR. (2001). "Rapid collisional evolution of comets during the formation of the Oort cloud.". Space Studies Department, Southwest Research Institute, Boulder, Colorado. Retrieved 2006-11-19. 128.Jump up ^ Bill Arnett (2006). "The Kuiper Belt and the Oort Cloud". nineplanets.org. Retrieved 2006-06-23. 129.Jump up ^ T. Encrenaz, JP. Bibring, M. Blanc, MA. Barucci, F. Roques, PH. Zarka (2004). The Solar System: Third edition. Springer. p. 1. 130.Jump up ^ Durda D. D.; Stern S. A.; Colwell W. B.; Parker J. W.; Levison H. F.; Hassler D. M. (2004). "A New Observational Search for Vulcanoids in SOHO/LASCO Coronagraph Images". Icarus 148: 312–315. Bibcode:2000Icar..148..312D. doi:10.1006/icar.2000.6520. 131.Jump up ^ English, J. (2000). "Exposing the Stuff Between the Stars" (Press release). Hubble News Desk. Retrieved 2007-05-10. 132.Jump up ^ R. Drimmel, D. N. Spergel (2001). "Three Dimensional Structure of the Milky Way Disk". Astrophysical Journal 556: 181–202. arXiv:astro-ph/0101259. Bibcode:2001ApJ...556..181D. doi:10.1086/321556. 133.Jump up ^ Eisenhauer, F. et al. (2003). "A Geometric Determination of the Distance to the Galactic Center". Astrophysical Journal 597 (2): L121–L124. arXiv:astro-ph/0306220. Bibcode:2003ApJ...597L.121E. doi:10.1086/380188. 134.Jump up ^ Leong, Stacy (2002). "Period of the Sun's Orbit around the Galaxy (Cosmic Year)". The Physics Factbook. Retrieved 2007-04-02. 135.Jump up ^ C. Barbieri (2003). "Elementi di Astronomia e Astrofisica per il Corso di Ingegneria Aerospaziale V settimana". IdealStars.com. Retrieved 2007-02-12. 136.Jump up ^ Reid, M.J.; Brunthaler, A. (2004). "The Proper Motion of Sagittarius A*". The Astrophysical Journal 616 (2): 883. arXiv:astro-ph/0408107. Bibcode:2004ApJ...616..872R. doi:10.1086/424960. 137.^ Jump up to: a b c Leslie Mullen (May 18, 2001). "Galactic Habitable Zones". Astrobiology Magazine. Retrieved 2015-04-24. 138.Jump up ^ O. Gerhard (2011). "Pattern speeds in the Milky Way". Mem. S.A.It. Suppl. 18: 185. arXiv:1003.2489. Bibcode:2011MSAIS..18..185G. 139.Jump up ^ "Supernova Explosion May Have Caused Mammoth Extinction". Physorg.com. 2005. Retrieved 2007-02-02. 140.Jump up ^ Our Local Galactic Neighborhood, NASA, 05-06-2013 141.Jump up ^ Into the Interstellar Void, Centauri Dreams, 05-06-2013 142.Jump up ^ "Near-Earth Supernovas". NASA. Retrieved 2006-07-23. 143.Jump up ^ "Stars within 10 light years". SolStation. Retrieved 2007-04-02. 144.Jump up ^ "Tau Ceti". SolStation. Retrieved 2007-04-02. 145.Jump up ^ Dumusque, X.; Pepe, F.; Lovis, C.; Ségransan, D.; Sahlmann, J.; Benz, W.; Bouchy, F. O.; Mayor, M.; Queloz, D.; Santos, N.; Udry, S. P. (2012). "An Earth-mass planet orbiting α Centauri B" (PDF). Nature 491 (7423): 207–211. doi:10.1038/nature11572. PMID 23075844. edit 146.Jump up ^ Discovery of a ~250 K Brown Dwarf at 2 pc from the Sun, K. L. Luhman 2014 ApJ 786 L18. doi:10.1088/2041-8205/786/2/L18
External links
Find more about
Solar System at Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Commons
News stories from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Source texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Learning resources from Wikiversity
Solar System Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration
NASA's Solar System Simulator NASA/JPL Solar System main page A Cosmic History of the Solar System
[show] v · t · e
The Solar System
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
· ·
· · · · · · · ·
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
· ·
· · ·
[show]
v ·
t ·
e
Celestial objects within 5 parsecs
· ·
·
· ·
·
·
·
· ·
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
· · · · ·
· · · · · · · ·
·
· · · · · · · · · ·
· ·
· · · · · ·
· ·
· ·
· · ·
· · · ·
· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·
· · · · ·
·
·
·
[show] v · t · e
Earth's location in the Universe
[show] v · t · e
Systems · Systems science
· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·
( ·
·
)
·
Authority control
GND: 4126385-6 ·
NDL: 00572587 ·
NKC: ph125704
Categories: Solar System
Planetary science
Planetary systems
Space science
Navigation menu
Joel shine
0
Talk
Sandbox
Preferences
Beta
Watchlist
Contributions
Log out
Article
Talk
Read
View source
View history
Watch
Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page
Tools
What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book Download as PDF Printable version
Languages
Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Ænglisc العربية Aragonés Armãneashti Arpetan অসমীয়া Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Azərbaycanca বাংলা Bahasa Banjar Bân-lâm-gú Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Български Boarisch བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Čeština ChiShona Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Frysk Fulfulde Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gàidhlig Galego 贛語 ગુજરાતી 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Hawai`i Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Ilokano বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue Ирон IsiZulu Íslenska Italiano עברית Basa Jawa ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan Къарачай-малкъар ქართული Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Коми Kreyòl ayisyen Kurdî Кыргызча Лезги ລາວ Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingála Lojban Lumbaart Magyar Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം Malti मराठी მარგალური مصرى مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Mirandés Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nāhuatl Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाली नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Napulitano Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Novial Occitan ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی پښتو ភាសាខ្មែរ Picard Piemontèis Plattdüütsch Polski Português Ripoarisch Română Rumantsch Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Sámegiella संस्कृतम् Sardu Scots Seeltersk Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Ślůnski Soomaaliga کوردیی ناوەندی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Basa Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча/tatarça తెలుగు ไทย Тоҷикӣ ᏣᎳᎩ Türkçe Türkmençe Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vèneto Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt Volapük Võro Walon 文言 West-Vlams Winaray Wolof 吴语 ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki Žemaitėška 中文 मैथिली Тыва дыл
Edit links
This page was last modified on 8 July 2015, at 20:48.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Mobile view