Sound changes from Proto-Indo-European

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The phonological changes from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) to Proto-Celtic (PC) may be summarized as follows.[1] The changes are roughly in chronological order, with changes that operate on the outcome of earlier ones appearing later in the list.

Late PIE

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These changes are shared by several other Indo-European branches.

  • *e is colored by an adjacent laryngeal consonant:
    • eh₂, h₂e > ah₂, h₂a[2]
    • eh₃, h₃e > oh₃, h₃o[2]
  • Palatovelars merge into the plain velars:
  • Epenthetic *a is inserted after a syllabic sonorant if a laryngeal and another sonorant follow (R̥HR > RaHR)
  • Laryngeals are lost:
    • before a following vowel (HV > V)
    • following a vowel in syllables before the accent (VHC´ > VC´)
    • following a vowel before a consonant, or word finally, resulting in compensatory lengthening, thus (VHC > V̄C, VH# > V̄#)
    • between plosives in non-initial syllables (CHC > CC)[2]
  • Two adjacent dentals become two adjacent sibilants (TT > TsT > ss)[2]

Italo-Celtic

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The following sound changes are shared with the Italic languages in particular, and are cited in support of the Italo-Celtic hypothesis.[4]

  • Dybo's rule: long close vowels are shortened (or a laryngeal is lost) before resonant + stressed vowel. Note that something like Dybo's rule seems to have also operated in Germanic (Old English wer < *wiHró-).[5]
    • īR´ / ? *iHR´ > iR´[2]
    • ūR´ / ? *uHR´ > uR´[2]
  • Possibly, post-consonantal laryngeals are lost when before pre-tonic close vowels:
    • CHiC´ > CiC´
    • CHuC´ > CuC´
  • Development of initial stress, following the previous two changes. But note that this seems to have been an areal feature, shared, for example with the Indo-European Germanic languages and the non-Indo-European Etruscan language.[6]
  • Possibly, vocalization of laryngeals to *ī between a *CR cluster and consonantal *j (CRHjV > CRījV)
  • Syllabic laryngeals become *a (CHC > CaC)[2]
  • Syllabic resonants before a voiced unaspirated stop become *Ra (R̥D > RaD)
  • *m is assimilated or lost before a glide:
    • mj > nj
    • mw > w
  • *p assimilates to *kʷ when another *kʷ follows later in the word (p…kʷ > kʷ…kʷ).[7] But Matasovic points out that: A) this change may have occurred late in Celtic; B) it seems not to have operated on some words in Irish; and C) a very similar assimilation (though in reverse) also occurred in Germanic.[8]

One change shows non-exact parallels in Italic: vocalization of syllabic resonants next to laryngeals depending on the environment. Similar developments appear in Italic, but for the syllabic nasals *m̥, *n̥, the result is Proto-Italic *əm, *ən (> Latin em ~ im, en ~ in).

  • Word-initially, HR̥C > aRC
  • Before voiceless stops, CR̥HT > CRaT
  • CR̥HV > CaRHV
  • CR̥HC > CRāC[2]

Early PC

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  • Sequences of velar and *w merge into the labiovelars (it is uncertain if this preceded or followed the next change; that is, whether gw > b or gw > gʷ, but Schumacher 2004 argues on p. 372 that this change came first; moreover, it is also found in Proto-Italic, and thus arguably belongs to the previous section):
    • kw > kʷ
    • gw > gʷ
    • gʰw > gʷʰ
    • gʷ > b[3]
  • Aspirated stops lose their aspiration and merge with the voiced stops (except that this counterfeeds the previous change, so *gʷʰ > *gʷ doesn't result in a merger; that is, the change *gʷʰ > *gʷ must crucially happen after the sound change gʷ > b has been completed):[9]
  • *e before a resonant and *a (but not *ā) becomes *a as well (eRa > aRa): *ǵʰelH-ro > *gelaro > *galaro / *gérH-no > *gerano > *garano (Joseph's rule).
  • Epenthetic *i is inserted after syllabic liquids when followed by a plosive:
  • Epenthetic *a is inserted before the remaining syllabic resonants:
  • All remaining nonsyllabic laryngeals are lost.[7]
  • ē > ī[7]
  • ō > ū in final syllables[7]
  • Long vowels are shortened before a syllable-final resonant (V:RC > VRC); this also shortens long diphthongs. (Osthoff's law)[7]

Late PC

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  • Plosives become *x before a different plosive or *s (C₁C₂ > xC₂, Cs > xs)[11]
  • p > b before liquids (pL > bL)[11]
  • p > w before nasals (pN > wN)[11]
  • p > ɸ (except possibly after *s)[11]
  • ō > ā[11]
  • ey > ē (but not in Celtiberian or Lepontic)[11]
  • ew > ow[11]
  • uwa > owa[11]

Examples

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PIE PC Example
PIE Proto-Celtic Old Irish Welsh
*p *ɸ *ph₂tḗr *ɸatīr father athir edrydd cf. home (< *ɸatrijo-)
*t *t *tréyes *trīs three trí tri
*k, ḱ *k *kh₂n̥-e-
*ḱm̥tom
*kan-o-
*kantom
sing
hundred
canaid
cét /kʲeːd/
canu
cant
* * *kʷetwores *kʷetwares four ceth(a)ir pedwar
*b *b *h₂ébōl *abalom apple uball afal
*d *d *derḱ- *derk- see derc eye drych sight
*g, ǵ *g *gleh₁i-
*ǵen-u-
*gli-na-
*genu-
to glue
jaw
glen(a)id
giun, gin
(he) sticks fast
mouth
glynu
gên
adhere
jaw
* *b *gʷenh₂ *bena woman ben O.W. ben
* *b *bʰére- *ber-o- carry berid (he) carries adfer
cymeryd[12]
to restore
to take
* *d *dʰeh₁i- *di-na- suck denait they suck dynu, denu
*gʰ, ǵʰ *g *gʰh₁bʰ-(e)y-
*ǵʰelH-ro-
*gab-i-
*galaro-
take
sickness
ga(i)bid
galar
(he) takes
sickness
gafael
galar
hold
grief
*gʷʰ * *gʷʰn̥- *gʷan-o- kill, wound gonaid (he) wounds, slays gwanu stab
*s *s *sen-o- *senos old sen hen
*m *m *méh₂tēr *mātīr mother máthir modryb cf. aunt
*n *n *h₂nép-ōt- *neɸūts nephew niad nai
*l *l *leyǵʰ- *lig-e/o- lick ligid (he) licks llyo, llyfu
*r *r *h₃rēǵ-s *rīgs king (gen. ríg) rhi
*j *j *h₂yuh₁n-ḱós *juwankos young óac ieuanc
*w *w *h₂wl̥h₁tí- *wlatis rulership flaith gwlad country
PIE PC Example
PIE PC Old Irish Welsh
*a, *h₂e *a *h₂ep-h₃ōn- *abū
acc. *abonen
river aub afon
*ā, *eh₂ *ā *bʰréh₂tēr *brātīr brother bráthir brawd
*e, h₁e *e *sen-o- *senos old sen hen
*H between
consonants[13]
*a *ph₂tḗr *ɸatīr father athir edrydd cf. home
*ē, eh₁ *ī *weh₁-ro- *wīros true fír gwir
*o, Ho, h₃e *o *Hroth₂o- *rotos wheel roth rhod
*ō, eh₃ in final syllable *ū *h₂nép-ōt- *neɸūts nephew niæ nai
elsewhere *ā *deh₃no- *dāno- gift dán dawn
*i *i *gʷih₃-tu- *bitus world bith byd
*ī, iH *ī *rīmeh₂ *rīmā number rím rhif
*ai, h₂ei, eh₂i *ai *kaikos
*seh₂itlo-
*kaikos
*saitlo-
blind
age
cáech
one-eyed
coeg
hoedl
empty, one-eyed
age
*(h₁)ei, ēi, eh₁i *ei *deywos *deiwos god día duw
*oi, ōi, h₃ei, eh₃i *oi *oynos *oinos one óen oín;
áen aín
un
*u before wa o *h₂yuh₁n-ḱós *juwankos >
*jowankos
young óac ieuanc
elsewhere *u *srutos *srutos stream sruth ffrwd
*ū, uH *ū *ruHneh₂ *rūnā mystery rún rhin
*au, h₂eu, eh₂u *au *tausos *tausos silent táue silence
(*tausijā)
taw
*(h₁)eu, ēu, eh₁u;
*ou, ōu, h₃eu, eh₃u
*ou *tewteh₂
*gʷeh₃-u-s
*toutā
*bows
people
cow
túath
tud
M.W. bu, biw
* before stops *li *pl̥th₂nós *ɸlitanos wide lethan llydan
before other
consonants
*al *kl̥h₁- *kaljākos rooster cailech
(Ogham gen. caliaci)
ceiliog
* before stops *ri *bʰr̥ti- *briti- act of bearing; mind breth, brith bryd
before other
consonants
*ar *mr̥wos *marwos dead marb marw
* *am *dm̥-nh₂- *damna- subdue M.Ir.
damnaid
he ties,
fastens,
binds
* *an *h₃dn̥t- *danton tooth dét /dʲeːd/ dant
*l̥H before obstruents *la *h₂wlh₁tí- *wlatis lordship flaith gwlad country
before sonorants * *pl̥Hmeh₂ *ɸlāmā hand lám llaw
*r̥H before obstruents *ra *mr̥Htom *mratom betrayal mrath brad
before sonorants * *ǵr̥Hnom *grānom grain grán grawn
*m̥H (presumably with
same distribution
as above)
*am/mā *dm̥h₂-ye/o- *damje/o- to tame daimid
fodam-
daimid
-
goddef endure, suffer
*n̥H *an/nā *ǵn̥h₃to- ? *gnātos known gnáth gnawd customary

references

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  1. ^ Matasović 2009, pp. 6–11.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h Matasović 2009, p. 6.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h Matasović 2009, p. 7.
  4. ^ Schrijver 2015, pp. 196–197.
  5. ^ Matasovic, R. (2009) Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic. Brill. p.7
  6. ^ Salmon, Joseph (1992) Accentual Change and Language Contact Stanford UP
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h i Matasović 2009, p. 8.
  8. ^ Matasovic 2009, pp. 11–12.
  9. ^ Cólera, Carlos Jordán (2007) "Celtiberian," e-Keltoi: Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies: Vol. 6, Article 17. p.759. Available at: https://dc.uwm.edu/ekeltoi/vol6/iss1/17 accessed June 21, 2023
  10. ^ a b Matasović 2009, pp. 7–8.
  11. ^ a b c d e f g h Matasović 2009, p. 9.
  12. ^ Welsh adfer 'to restore' < *ate-ber-, cymeryd < obsolete cymer < M.W. cymeraf < *kom-ber- (with -yd taken from the verbal noun cymryd < *kom-britu).
  13. ^ However, according to Hackstein (2002) *CH.CC > Ø in unstressed medial syllables. Thus, H can disappear in weak cases while being retained in strong cases, e.g. IE nom.sg. *dʰugh₂tḗr vs. gen.sg. *dʰugtr-os 'daughter' > early PC *dugater- ~ dugtr-. This then led to a paradigmatic split, resulting in Celtiberian gen.sg. tuateros, nom.pl. tuateres vs. Gaulish duxtir (< *dugtīr). (Zair 2012: 161, 163).
  • Matasović, Ranko (2009). Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic. Leiden Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Series, 9. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-17336-1.
  • Matasović, Ranko (2011). Addenda et corrigenda to Ranko Matasović’s Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic (PDF). Leiden Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Series, 9. Brill Academic Publishers.
  • Schrijver, Peter (2015). "Pruners and trainers of the Celtic family tree: The rise and development of Celtic in light of language contact". Proceedings of the XIV International Congress of Celtic Studies, Maynooth 2011. Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies. pp. 191–219.
  • Hackstein, Olav (2002). "Uridg. *CH.CC > *C.CC". Historische Sprachforschung. 115: 1–22.