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Etymology of key terms edit

Ariya sacca (arya satya) edit

The Pali terms ariya sacca (Sanskrit: arya satya) are commonly translated as "noble truths". This translation is a convention started by the earliest translators of Buddhist texts into English; however, many contemporary translators have pointed out that this is not necessarily the most accurate translation of this terms. For example, contemporary scholar Paul Williams states:[1]

...as K. R. Norman has pointed out, there is no particular reason why the Pali expression ariyasaccani should be translated as 'noble truths'. It could equally be translated as 'the nobles' truths', or 'the truths for nobles', or 'the nobilising truths', or 'the truths of, possessed by, the noble ones' (1990-6, in 1993 volume: 174). In fact the Pali expression (and its Sanskrit equivalent) can mean all of these, although the Pali commentators place 'the noble truths' as the least important in their understanding (ibid.; see also Norman 1997: 16). Norman's own view is that probably the best single translation is 'the truth[s] of the noble one (the Buddha)'. This would amount to a statement of how things are seen ('truth'; Sanskrit: satya; Pali: sacca, derived from 'sat', being, how it is) by a Buddha, how things really are when seen correctly. Through not seeing things this way, and behaving accordingly, we suffer.

Contemporary Buddhist teacher Mingyur Rinpoche describes the four arya satya as "Four Pure Insights into the Way Things Are".[2]

The term ariya (Sanskrit: arya) can be translated as "noble", "not ordinary", "valuble", "precious",[a] "pure",[2] etc. Paul Williams states: "The Aryas are the noble ones, the saints, those who have attained 'the fruits of the path', 'that middle path the Tathagata has comprehended which promotes sight and knowledge, and which tends to peace, higher wisdom, enlightenment, and Nibbana' (Narada 1980: 50).[4]

Geshe Tashi Tsering states:[5]

The modifier noble means truth as perceived by arya beings, those beings who have had a direct realization of emptiness or selflessness. Noble means something seen by arya beings as it really is, and in this case it is four recognitions—suffering, origin, cessation, and path. Arya beings see all types of suffering—physical and mental, gross and subtle—exactly as they are, as suffering. For people like us, who do not have the direct realization of emptiness, although we may understand certain levels of physical and mental experiences as suffering, it is impossible for us to see all the levels of suffering for what they are. Instead we may see some things as desirable when in truth they are suffering.

The term sacca (Sanskrit: satya) is typically translated as "truth"; but it also means "that which is in accord with reality" , or "reality". Rupert Gethin states:[6]

The word satya (Pali sacca) can certainly mean truth, but it might equally be rendered as ‘real’ or ‘actual thing’. That is, we are not dealing here with propositional truths with which we must either agree or disagree, but with four ‘true things’ or ‘realities’ whose nature, we are told, the Buddha finally understood on the night of his awakening.

Pali (and Sanskrit) terms for the four truths edit

The four truths are typically expressed in Pali (and Sanskrit) as follows:[web 1][web 2][b]

  1. Dukkha saccã (Sanskrit. duḥkha-satya) - the Truth of Suffering
  2. Samudaya saccã (Sanskrit. samudaya-satya) - the Truth of the Origin of Suffering
  3. Nirodha saccã (Sanskrit. nirodha-satya) - the Truth of the Cessation of Suffering
  4. Magga saccã (Sanskrit. mārga-satya) - the Truth of the Path leading to the Cessation of Suffering

The key terms in these expressions can be translated as follows:

  1. Dukkha - "suffering", "anxiety", "uneasiness", "dissatisfaction", "unsatisfactoriness", etc. See Dukkha etymology
  2. Samudaya - "origin", "source", "arising", "coming to existence"[web 4]
  3. Nirodha - cessation; release;[web 5] to confine[7]
  4. Magga - "path"[web 6]
    The key terms in the longer version of this expression, Dukkha Nirodha Gamini Patipada Ariya Saccam,[b] can be translated as follows:
    • Gamini: leading to, making for[web 7]
    • Patipada: road, path, way; the means of reaching a goal or destination[web 8]

Illness, diagnosis, and cure edit

In the Buddhist tradition, the Buddha is often compared to a great physician, and his teachings are compared to medicine. The teachings on the four noble truths in particular are related to a medical diagnosis, as follows:[c]

  1. The truth of dukkha: is recognizing that there is an illness
  2. The truth of origin: is identifying the cause of the illness (the diagnosis)
  3. The truth of cessation: is identifying a cure of the illness (the prognosis)
  4. The truth of the path: is recommending a treatment for the illness that can bring about a cure (the prescription)

This analogy is said emphasize the compassion of the Buddha—that he was motivated by the desire to relieve the suffering of beings.[8][10] It also emphasized that the Buddha was presented as physician, or healer of the spirit, rather than as a meta-physician or someone who spoke of supernatural powers. For example, Pico Iyer states: "The Buddha generally presented himself as more physician than metaphysician: if an arrow is sticking out of your side, he famously said, don’t argue about where it came from or who made it; just pull it out. You make your way to happiness not by fretting about it or trafficking in New Age affirmations, but simply by finding the cause of your suffering, and then attending to it, as any doctor (of mind or body) might do."[web 12]

Contemporary Buddhist teacher Tamara Engel also emphasizes the Buddha's reluctance to comment on metaphysical matters:[web 10]

The brilliance of this medical model is that the Buddha offers a complete spiritual path that does not depend on metaphysical speculation or belief—no speculation or belief about God. No leap of faith is required. The illness the Buddha refers to is a particular kind of suffering, and there is nothing metaphysical about it. We all experience it. In fact, it is said that the Buddha would never enter into a metaphysical discussion. He stated, “I teach one thing and one thing only. Suffering and the end of suffering.”"

There are many examples of the comparing the Buddha to a doctor both in the original suttas and in traditional and contemporary commentaries.[d]

Methods of study and practice edit

Differences between Theravada and Mahayana approaches edit

The two main traditions of Buddhism, the Theravada and Mahayana, have different approaches to learning about the four noble truths and putting them into practice. The Theravada tradition strongly emphasizes reading and contemplating the The Discourse That Sets Turning the Wheel of Truth—the first discourse of the Buddha—as a means to study the four noble truths and put them into practice. In the Mahayana tradition, practitioners are more likely to learn about the four noble truths through studying various Mahayana commentaries, and less like to study the Sanskrit-language version of the first discourse. The Mahayana commentaries typically present the four noble truths in the context of the Mahayana path of the bodhisattva.[17]

For example, Geshe Tashi Tsering explains:[17]

The two main Buddhist traditions, Theravada and Mahayana, have different sets of scriptures. The Theravada is an earlier tradition whose teachings are recorded in the Pali texts, while the Mahayana is based on Sanskrit texts that were written down later. The countries that follow the Theravada tradition strongly emphasize reading, reciting, and learning the actual discourses of the Buddha. In the Tibetan monasteries, which follow the Mahayana tradition, we study the four noble truths on many occasions over the course of our education, but we do not typically study the sutra itself. Usually we study this topic in conjunction with the teachings that emphasize the bodhisattva aspiration for enlightenment for the sake of all other beings.

In addition, the Theravada tradition emphasizes contemplating the three insights for each truth that are mentioned in The Discourse That Sets Turning the Wheel of Truth, whereas the Mayahana tradition also identifies sixteen characteristics of the four noble truths. (These alternatives are explained below.)

Twelve insights edit

The Discourse That Sets Turning the Wheel of Truth identifies three stages in the understanding of each truth, for a total of twelve insights. The three stages for understanding each truth are:[e]

  1. sacca-ñāṇa - knowing the nature of the truth (e.g., acknowledgement, view, reflection)
  2. kicca-ñāṇa - knowing what needs to be done in connection with that truth (e.g., practice; motivation; directly experiencing)
  3. kata-ñāṇa - accomplishing what needs to be done (e.g., result, full understanding, knowing)

These three stages of understanding are emphasized particularly in the Theravada tradition, but they are also recognized by some contemporary Mahayana teachers.[f]

Three insights for the first noble truth

The three insights for the first noble truth are:

  1. There is suffering. - Ajahn Sumedho explains: "We don’t need to make it into anything grand; it is just the recognition: ‘There is suffering’. That is a basic insight. The ignorant person says, ‘I’m suffering. I don’t want to suffer. I meditate and I go on retreats to get out of suffering, but I’m still suffering and I don’t want to suffer.... How can I get out of suffering? What can I do to get rid of it?’ But that is not the First Noble Truth; it is not: ‘I am suffering and I want to end it.’ The insight is, ‘There is suffering’."[20]
  2. Suffering should be understood. - Ajahn Sumedho explains: The second insight or aspect of each of the Noble Truths has the word ‘should’ in it: ‘It should be understood.’ The second insight then, is that dukkha is something to understand. One should understand dukkha, not just try to get rid of it. [...] in Pali, ‘understanding’ means to really accept the suffering, stand under or embrace it rather than just react to it. With any form of suffering - physical or mental - we usually just react, but with understanding we can really look at suffering; really accept it, really hold it and embrace it. So that is the second aspect, ‘We should understand suffering’."[20]
  3. Suffering has been understood. - Ajahn Sumedho explains: "When you have actually practised with suffering - looking at it, accepting it, knowing it and letting it be the way it is - then there is the third aspect, ‘Suffering has been understood’, or ‘Dukkha has been understood.’ "[20]
Three insights for the second noble truth

The three insights for the second noble truth are:[23]

  1. Desire (tanha) should be understood
  2. Desire should be let go of
  3. Desire has been let go of

This is also expressed as:[24]

  1. there is an origin to dukkha;
  2. the origin can be penetrated by abandonment;
  3. it has been penetrated by abandonment.
Three insights for the third noble truth
  1. There is cessation of suffering
  2. Cessation should be known
  3. Cessation should be realized
Three insights for the fourth noble truth
  1. There is a path to the cessation of suffering
  2. This path should be actualized
  3. This path is realized

Sixteen characteristics edit

The Mahayana text Ornament of Clear Realization (Abhisamayalamkara) by Maitreya, identifies four characteristics of each truth, for a total of sixteen characteristics, which are presented as a guide to contemplating and practicing the four noble truths.[25] The Ornament of Clear Realization is a key text in the curriculum of Tibetan Buddhist monasteries and study colleges.

These sixteen characteristics are identified as follows:[26]

  • Truth of suffering:
    1. impermanence
    2. suffering
    3. emptiness
    4. selflessness
  • Truth of origin
    1. causes
    2. origin
    3. strong production
    4. condition
  • Truth of cessation
    1. cessation
    2. pacification
    3. being superb
    4. definite emergence
  • Truth of the path
    1. path
    2. awareness
    3. achievement
    4. deliverance

Geshe Tashi Tsering explains the four characteristics of the truth of suffering in detail in his commentary on the four noble truths.[27]

Within Buddhist traditions edit

Theravada tradition edit

Within the Theravada tradition, great emphasis is placed upon reading and contemplating the The Discourse That Sets Turning the Wheel of Truth, and other suttas, as a means to study the four noble truths and put them into practice.[17] For example, Ajahn Sumedho states:[28]

"The Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, the Buddha's teaching on the Four Noble Truths, has been the main reference that I have used for my practice over the years. It is the teaching we used in our monastery in Thailand. The Theravada school of Buddhism regards this sutta as the quintessence of the teachings of the Buddha. This one sutta contains all that is necessary for understanding the Dhamma and for enlightenment."

Mahayana tradition edit

In the Mahayana tradition, the four noble truths are considered central to the teachings of Buddhism, but they been traditionally studied in conjunction with teachings on bodhisattva path.[17]

Tibetan tradition edit

Within the Tibetan tradition, the four noble truths are traditionally studied from Mahayana commentaries such as the Abhisamayalamkara, rather than from reading the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta. In this context, the truth of the path (the fourth truth) is traditionally presented according to a formula of five paths, rather than than as the eightfold path presented in other traditions. From the Tibetan Buddhist point of view, the noble eightfold path is implicit in this Mahayana presentation of the five paths.[g]

However, contemporary Tibetan Buddhist teachers are likely to provide commentary on the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta and the noble eightfold path when presenting the dharma to Western students. For example, Geshe Tashi Tsering's commentary on the four noble truths emphasizes the Pali version of the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta,[30] and contemporary texts by Ringu Tulku[31] and Lama Surya Das[32] present the noble eightfold path.

The Tibetan tradition also emphasizes study of the sixteen characteristics of the four noble truths, as described in the Abhisamayalamkara.

Lotus Sutra edit

The text of the Lotus Sutra refers to the four noble truths in the context of presenting the teachings on the bodhisattva path: [33][web 15]

In the past at Vārāṇasī, you turned the wheel of the Darma of the Four Noble Truths, making distinctions and preaching that all things are born and become extinct, being made up of the five components (skandhas). Now you turn the wheel of the most wonderful, the unsurpassed great Dharma. This Dharma is very profound and abstruse; there are few who can believe it. Since times past often we have heard the World-Honored One's preaching, but we have never heard this kind of profound, wonderful and superior Dharma. Since the World-Honored One preaches this Dharma, we all welcome it with joy.

Nichiren Buddhism edit

Based on the Lotus Sutra's teaching of what it describes as the "unsurpassed Dharma", Nichiren Buddhism acknowledges the Four Noble Truths as the first sermon, but not as the final teaching of the Buddha. In his letter "A Comparison between the Lotus and Other Sutras" Nichiren viewed the Four Noble Truths as a specific teaching expounded by the Buddha to the śrāvakas disciples, those who attain awakening by listening to the teachings of a Buddha.[web 16]

Craving, described as the cause of sufferings in the Four Noble Truths, is called "Attachment to Earthly Desires" in Nichiren's teachings.[web 17] Craving or attachment to desires, however, is not regarded here as the sole cause of suffering, but as only one among other causes which also lead to sufferings such as "Arrogance, Negligence, Refusing to believe, Hatred, Holding Grudges". These causes of evil behaviour leading to sufferings are called the Fourteen Slanders (of the Dharma).

Notes edit

  1. ^ Ajahn Sucitto states: "So the four truths (ariya sacca) are generally called “noble” truths, although one might also translate ariya as “precious.” "[3]
  2. ^ a b The complete expressions from the first discourse are as follows:[web 3]
    1. Dukkham ariyasaccam
    2. Dukkhasamudayam ariyasaccam
    3. Dukkhanirodham ariyasaccam
    4. Dukkhanirodhagāminī patipadā ariyasaccam
  3. ^ In the Buddhist tradition, the four noble truths are often compared to a medical diagnosis. For example:
    • Rupert Gethin states: "The Buddhist tradition has sometimes compared the Buddha to a physician and the four truths to a medical diagnosis: the truth of duḥkha is like a disease, the truth of the origin of duḥkha is like its cause, the truth of the cessation of duḥkha is like the disease’s being cured, and the truth of the path leading to the cessation of duḥkha is like the medicine that brings about the disease’s cure.[Lalitavistara ii. 525, 538–9 (Lefmann ed. 351, 358–9); Visuddhimagga xvi. 87.] It is the wish to relieve the suffering of the disease and eradicate its cause that is the starting point of Buddhist practice."[8]
    Geshe Tashi Tsering states: "In his first teaching, the Buddha compares the stages of freeing the mind to recovery from an illness: if we don’t first recognize that we are ill, we won’t seek help. And if we don’t know the origin of our illness, we cannot choose the most effective therapy. The Buddha uses the framework of the four noble truths to formulate this insight: the first truth, the truth of suffering, is the illness. The second truth, the truth of the origin of suffering, refers to the cause of the illness. The third truth, the truth of cessation, is the understanding that a complete cure is possible. And the fourth truth, the truth of the path that leads to cessation, is the cure."[9]
    • Bhikkhu Bodhi states: "The Buddha sets out the Four Truths as a formula a doctor uses to deal with a patient. The Buddha first sets out the basic affliction of human life, the problem of Dukkha. Thereafter he makes the diagnosis, explaining the cause for the disease; this is the second truth as craving. As a third Step the doctor gives a prognosis. He determines the possibility of a cure, the cessation of dukkha. The Buddha says that suffering can be ended . As the fourth step the doctor prescribes the course of treatment. So too Buddha prescribed the fourth truth, the Noble Eightfold Path."[web 9]
    • Ron Leifer states: "Because of his compassion for sufferers, the Buddha become known as the great physician, a physician of the spirit. Using the medical model as a metaphor for the four noble truths, the first noble truth describes the disease; the second noble truth describes the cause of the disease; the third noble truth reveals the cure for the disease; and the fourth noble truth teaches the means for curing the disease."[10]
    • Phillip Moffitt states: Thus, the Buddha, like a doctor, tells the patient what the illness is, diagnoses the cause, tells the patient the cure for the condition, and recommends the medicine needed to bring about the cure."[11]
    • Smith and Novak state: "The Buddha’s approach to the problem of life in the Four Noble Truths was essentially that of a physician. He began by examining carefully the symptoms that provoke concern... These symptoms the Buddha summarized in the First Noble Truth..."[12]
    • Damien Keown states: "Sometimes a medical metaphor is used to illustrate the relationship between them, and the Buddha is likened to a physician who has found a cure for life's ills. First he diagnoses the disease, second explains its cause, third determines that a cure exists, and fourth sets out the treatment.[13]
    • Tamara Engel states: "In the Discourses, the Buddha is often referred to as a doctor, and The Four Noble Truths are formulated according to the ancient Indian medical model: 1. There is an illness; 2. There is a cause(s) of illness; 3. There is a possibility of a cure of the illness; 4. There is a prescription i.e., what we need to do to bring about a cure. The brilliance of this medical model is that the Buddha offers a complete spiritual path that does not depend on metaphysical speculation or belief—no speculation or belief about God. No leap of faith is required. The illness the Buddha refers to is a particular kind of suffering, and there is nothing metaphysical about it. We all experience it. In fact, it is said that the Buddha would never enter into a metaphysical discussion. He stated, “I teach one thing and one thing only. Suffering and the end of suffering.”"[web 10]
    • Peter Della Santina states: One of the fundamental formulas evolved by practitioners of the science of medicine in ancient India was the fourfold scheme of disease, diagnosis, cure, and treatment. If you consider carefully these four stages in the practice of the science of medicine, it will be apparent that they correspond very closely to the formula of the Four Noble Truths: (1) the truth of suffering clearly corresponds to the first element of disease; (2) the truth of the cause just as clearly corresponds to the element of diagnosis; (3) the truth of cessation corresponds to the achievement of a cure; and (4) the truth of the path just as clearly corresponds to the course of treatment of a disease.[web 11]
    • Donald Lopez states: "The fact that the truths appear out of chronological sequence, with the effect coming before its cause, is explained through recourse to a medical model, in which the Buddha, in setting forth the truths, is following the procedure of a physician. The physician's first task is to recognize that illness is indeed present and to identify it. This is precisely what the Buddha has done in observing that existence is qualified by suffering. The second step is to make a diagnosis, to determine the source of the malady. In the second truth, the truth of origin, the Buddha explains the sequence of causes, both immediate and mediate, that give rise to suffering. The physicians next task is determine whether the disease is fatal or whether a subsequent state of health is possible; that is, the physician makes a prognosis. The third truth is the postulation of a state free from suffering, called cessation or nirvana. Once the prognosis is made, the physician must prescribe the cure, the course of action that will lead from sickness to health. The fourth and final truth of the path is said to be the Buddha's prescription."[14]
    • Paul Williams states: "The formula for the four Noble Truths is probably based on the formula for a medical diagnosis. That is, it states the illness, the source of the illness, then the cure for the illness, and finally the way to bring about that cure.[15]
  4. ^ The Buddha is often compared to a doctor:
    • Thanisarro Bhikkhu identifies discourses in the Pali canon in which the dharma is referred to as medicine, and the Buddha as a doctor.[web 13]
    • Thanissaro Bhikkhu states: "What's special about the Buddha's approach is that the problem he attacks is the whole of human suffering, and the solution he offers is something human beings can do for themselves. Just as a doctor with a surefire cure for measles isn't afraid of measles, the Buddha isn't afraid of any aspect of human suffering. And, having experienced a happiness totally unconditional, he's not afraid to point out the suffering and stress inherent in places where most of us would rather not see it — in the conditioned pleasures we cling to. He teaches us not to deny that suffering and stress or to run away from it, but to stand still and face up to it, to examine it carefully. That way — by understanding it — we can ferret out its cause and put an end to it. Totally."[web 14]
    • Walpola Rahula states: "Buddhism...tells you exactly and objectively what you are and what the world around you is, and shows you the way to perfect freedom, peace, tranquility and happiness. One physician may gravely exaggerate an illness and give up hope altogether. Another may ignorantly declare that there is no illness and that no treatment is necessary, thus deceiving the patient with a false consolation. You may call the first one pessimistic and the second optimistic. Both are equally dangerous. But a third physician diagnoses the symptoms correctly, understands the cause and the nature of the illness, sees clearly that it can be cured, and courageously administers a course of treatment, thus saving his patient. The Buddha is like the last physician. He is the wise and scientific doctor for the ills of the world (Bhisakka or Bhaisajya-guru)."[16]
  5. ^ The Discourse That Sets Turning the Wheel of Truth identifies three stages in the understanding of each truth:
    • Walpola Rahula states: "[...]with regard to each of the Four Noble Truths there are three aspects of knowledge: 1. The knowledge that it is the Truth (sacca-ñāṇa) 2. The knowledge that a certain function or action with regard to this Truth should be performed (kicca-ñāṇa), and 3. The knowledge that that function or action with regard to this Truth has been performed (kata-ñāṇa)."[18]
    • Ajahn Sucitto states: "The Buddha goes on to deepen the significance of the practice of the four noble truths. He begins by analyzing the first noble truth in a pattern of three stages: acknowledgment, motivation, and result—or view, practice, and full understanding. This pattern is then repeated in each of the other noble truths. In each case, the first stage is a fuller reflection on the importance of bearing the meaning of the specific truth in mind; the second stage demonstrates the way of practicing with that truth; the third fully penetrates the significance of that truth. Together, the twelve stages define the process of awakening through the four noble truths."[19]
    • Ajahn Sumedho states: "Now the Four Noble Truths are: there is suffering; there is a cause or origin of suffering; there is a end of suffering; and there is path out of suffering which is the Eightfold Path. Each of these Truths has three aspects so all together there are twelve insights. In the Theravada school, an arahant, a perfected one, is one who has seen clearly the Four Noble Truths with their three aspects and twelve insights."[20]
    • Phillip Moffitt states: "There are three insights associated with each Noble Truth, and they follow a similar pattern: first reflecting, then directly experiencing, and finally knowing."[21]
    • Geshe Tashi Tsering states: In the [Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, the Buddha] repeats each noble truth three times, each time with a slightly different emphasis and a slightly different flavor. This repetition represents the three phases of understanding that the Buddha himself acquired in his ever-deepening realization of these four truths. The three phases are as follows: knowing the nature of the truth, knowing what needs to be done in connection with that truth, and finally accomplishing what needs to be done.[22]
  6. ^ For example, the contemporary Tibetan teacher Geshe Tashi Tsering identifies these twelve insights in his commentary on the four noble truths.[22]
  7. ^ Geshe Tashi Tsering states: "Many people have asked me why Tibetan Buddhism does not present the noble eightfold path as part of the fourth noble truth, but for me there is no difference between the noble eightfold path and the five paths apart from the style of presentation. In the Mahayana tradition, when the path leading to cessation is presented in the context of the five paths, the noble eightfold path is implicit. The noble eightfold path is the substance, and the five paths is the process, the step-by-step progress that we have to make.[29]

References edit

  1. ^ Williams 2002, p. 41.
  2. ^ a b Mingyur Rinpoche 2007, p. 70.
  3. ^ Ajahn Sucitto 2010, Kindle Location 122.
  4. ^ Williams 2002, p. 52.
  5. ^ Geshe Tashi Tsering 2005, Kindle Locations 349-350.
  6. ^ Gethin 1998, p. 60.
  7. ^ Brazier 2001.
  8. ^ a b Gethin 1998, pp. 63–64.
  9. ^ Geshe Tashi Tsering 2006, Kindle Locations 167-176.
  10. ^ a b Leifer 1997, p. 71.
  11. ^ Moffitt 2008, Kindle Locations 224-225.
  12. ^ Smith & Novak 2009.
  13. ^ Keown 2000, Kindle Locations 909-911.
  14. ^ Lopez 2001, p. 52.
  15. ^ Williams 2002, p. 42.
  16. ^ Walpola Rahula 2007, Kindle locations 525-541.
  17. ^ a b c d Geshe Tashi Tsering, 2005 & Kindle Locations 275-280. Cite error: The named reference "FOOTNOTEGeshe Tashi Tsering2005Kindle Locations 275-280" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  18. ^ Walpola Rahula 2007, Kindle loc. 3935-3939.
  19. ^ Ajahn Succito 2010, pp. 99-100.
  20. ^ a b c d Ajahn Sumedho 2002, p. 9.
  21. ^ Phillip Moffitt 2002, Kindle loc. 225-226.
  22. ^ a b Geshe Tashi Tsering 2005, Kindle Locations 303-306.
  23. ^ Ajahn Sumedho 2002, p. 35.
  24. ^ Ajahn Succito 2010, p. 109.
  25. ^ Geshe Tashi Tsering 2005, Kindle Locations 741-743.
  26. ^ Geshe Tashi Tsering 2005, Kindle Locations 2305-2310.
  27. ^ Geshe Tashi Tsering 2005, Kindle Locations 736-837.
  28. ^ Ajahn Sumedho 2002, p. 5.
  29. ^ Geshe Tashi Tsering 2005, Kindle Locations 2187-2190.
  30. ^ Geshe Tashi Tsering 2005, Kindle Locations 241.
  31. ^ Ringu Tulku 2005, pp. 36–54.
  32. ^ Lama Surya Das 1997.
  33. ^ Watson 1993, p. 55.

Web references edit

  1. ^ Mahasi Sayadaw, Discourse on the Wheel of Dharma, part 5
  2. ^ John Powers, Introduction to Tibetan Buddhism
  3. ^ Bhikkhu Pesala: An Exposition of the Dhammacakka Sutta
  4. ^ Digital Library & Museum of Buddhist Studies, College of liberal Arts, Taiwan University: Samudaya
  5. ^ Fraught with peril, Buddhism with attitude: Nirodha; Cessation or Release?
  6. ^ Access to Insight Glossary - m
  7. ^ Pali Text Society Dictionary
  8. ^ Access to Insight Glossary - pq
  9. ^ A Doctor's Prescription, by Bhikkhu Bodhi
  10. ^ a b The Four Noble Truths, by Tamara Engel
  11. ^ The Four Noble Truths by Peter Della Santina
  12. ^ The Doctor Is Within by Pico Iyer. New York Times Opinionator. July 22, 2009.
  13. ^ Beyond Coping: The Buddha as Doctor, the Dhamma as Medicine by Thanissaro Bhikkhu
  14. ^ Life Isn't Just Suffering by Thanissaro Bhikkhu
  15. ^ Text of the Lotus Sutra
  16. ^ Four Noble truths for Voice Hearers
  17. ^ Attachment to Earthly Desires
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