Period of popularity
editThe popularity of physiognomy grew throughout the 18th century and into the 19th century, and it was discussed seriously by academics, who saw a lot of potential in it.[1] Many European novelists used physiognomy in the descriptions of their characters.[1] notably Balzac, Chaucer[2] and portrait artists, such as Joseph Ducreux. A host of 19th-century English authors were influenced by the idea, notably evident in the detailed physiognomic descriptions of characters in the novels of Charles Dickens, Thomas Hardy, and Charlotte Brontë.
In addition to Thomas Browne, other literary authors associated with Norwich who made physiognomical observations in their writings include the romantic novelist Amelia Opie, and the travelogue author George Borrow.
Physiognomy is a central, implicit assumption underlying the plot of Oscar Wilde's The Picture of Dorian Gray. In 19th-century American literature, physiognomy figures prominently in the short stories of Edgar Allan Poe.[3]
Phrenology, also considered a form of physiognomy, was created around 1800 by German physician Franz Joseph Gall and Johann Spurzheim, and was widely popular in the 19th century in Europe and the United States. In the U.S., physician James W. Redfield published his Comparative Physiognomy in 1852, illustrating with 330 engravings the "Resemblances between Men and Animals". He finds these in appearance and (often metaphorically) character, e.g. Germans to Lions, Negroes to Elephants and Fishes, Chinamen to Hogs, Yankees to Bears, Jews to Goats.[4]
During the late 19th century, English psychometrician Sir Francis Galton attempted to define physiognomic characteristics of health, disease, beauty, and criminality, via a method of composite photography.[5][6] Galton's process involved the photographic superimposition of two or more faces by multiple exposures. After averaging together photographs of violent criminals, he found that the composite appeared "more respectable" than any of the faces comprising it; this was likely due to the irregularities of the skin across the constituent images being averaged out in the final blend. With the advent of computer technology during the early 1990s, Galton's composite technique has been adopted and greatly improved using computer graphics software.[7]
In the late 19th century, it became associated with phrenology and consequently discredited and rejected.[8] Nevertheless, the German physiognomist Carl Huter (1861–1912) became popular in Germany with his concept of physiognomy, called "psycho-physiognomy".[9]
Physiognomy also became of use in the field of Criminology through efforts made by Italian army doctor and scientist, Cesare Lombroso. Lombroso, during the mid 19th century, championed the notion that "criminality was inherited and that criminals could be identified by physical attributes such as hawk-like noses and bloodshot eyes" [10]. Lombroso took inspiration from the recently released ideologies and studies of Darwin and carried many of the misunderstandings that he had regarding evolution into the propagation of the use of physiognomy in criminology.[11] His logic stemmed from the idea that " criminals were 'throwbacks' in the phylogenetic tree to early phases of evolution". [11] Bearing this in mind, it is reasonable to conclude that "according to Lombroso, a regressive characteristic united the genius, the madman and the delinquent; they differed in the intensity of this characteristic and, naturally in the degree of development of the positive qualities". [11] He believed that one could determine whether one was of savage nature just by their physical characteristics. Based off of his findings, "Lombroso proposed that the "born criminal" could be distinguished by physical atavistic stigmata, such as:
- large jaws, forward projection of jaw,
- low sloping forehead,
- high cheekbones,
- flattened or upturned nose,
- handle-shaped ears,
- hawk-like noses or fleshy lips,
- hard shifty eyes,
- scanty beard or baldness,
- insensitivity to pain,
- long arms relative to lower limbs".[12]
This interest in the relationship between criminology and physiognomy began upon Lombroso's first interaction with "a notorious Calabrian thief and arsonist" named Giuseppe Villella. [10] Lombroso was particularly taken by many striking personality characteristics that Villella possessed; agility and cynicism being some of them. Upon Villella's death, Lombroso "conducted a post-mortem and discovered that his subject had an indentation at the back of his skull, which resembled that found in apes".[10] He later referred to this anomaly as the median occipital depression. [13] Lombroso used the term "atavism" to describe these primitive, ape-like behaviors that he found in many of those whom he deemed to be prone to criminality. As he continued analyzing the data he gathered from said autopsy and comparing and contrasting these results with previous cases, he inferred that certain physical characteristics allowed for some individuals to have a greater "propensity to offend and were also savage throwbacks to early man". [10]As one would assume, these sorts of examinations yielded far-reaching consequences for various scientific and medical communities at the time; in fact, "the natural genesis of crime implied that the criminal personality should be regarded as a particular form of psychiatric disease". [11] Furthermore, these ideals promoted the idea that when a crime is committed, it is no longer seen as "free will" but instead a result of one's genetic pre-disposition to savagery. [11] He had numerous case studies to corroborate many of his findings due to the fact that he was the head of an insane asylum at Pesaro. He was easily able to study people of various walks of life and was thus able to further define criminal types. Because his theories primarily focused on anatomy and anthropological information, the idea of degeneracy being a source of atavism was not explored till later on in his criminological endeavors. [14] These "new and improved" theories led to the notion "that the born criminal had pathological symptoms in common with the moral imbecile and the epileptic, and this led him to expand his typology to include the insane criminal and the epileptic criminal". In addition, "the insane criminal type [was said to] include the alcoholic, the mattoid, and the hysterical criminal" [14] When it comes to modern applications of Lombroso's findings and ideals, there is little to be seen. Lombroso's ideologies are now seen to be flawed and is usually relegated to the status of "pseudo-science". Many have remarked on the overt sexist and racist overtones of his research and denounce it on these bases alone. [13] In spite of many of his theories being discredited, he is still hailed as the father of "scientific criminology". [12]Although, modern criminology finds many of his teaching to be incorrect, he had an immense influence over criminology and physiognomy at the time and his presence within the field during his time is still unrivaled to this day.
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- ^ a b Roy Porter (2003). "Marginalized practices". The Cambridge History of Science: Eighteenth-century science. The Cambridge History of Science. Vol. 4 (illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 495–497. ISBN 978-0-521-57243-9.
Although we may now bracket physiognomy with Mesmerism as discredited or even laughable belief, many eighteenth-century writers referred to it in all seriousness as a useful science with a long history(...) Although many modern historians belittle physiognomy as a pseudoscience, at the end of the eighteenth century it was not merely a popular fad but also the subject of intense academic debate about the promises it held for future progress.
- ^ Auguste Elfriede Christa Canitz, Gernot Rudolf Wieland, ed. (1999). "Another look at an Old 'Science': Chaucer's Pilgrims and Physiognomy". From Arabye to Engelond: medieval studies in honour of Mahmoud Manzalaoui on his 75th birthday. Actexpress Series. University of Ottawa Press. pp. 93–110. ISBN 978-0-7766-0517-3.
- ^ Grayson, Erik (2005). "Weird Science, Weirder Unity: Phrenology and Physiognomy in Edgar Allan Poe". Mode. 1: 56–77.
- ^ "Comparative Physiognomy or Resemblances between Men and Animals: Illustrated" by Jam. W. Redfield Full text on Google Books
- ^ Benson, P., & Perrett, D. (1991). Computer averaging and manipulations of faces. In P. Wombell (ed.), Photovideo: Photography in the age of the computer (pp. 32–38). London: Rivers Oram Press.
- ^ Galton, Francis (1879). "Composite Portraits, Made by Combining Those of Many Different Persons Into a Single Resultant Figure". The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. 8: 132–44. doi:10.2307/2841021. JSTOR 2841021.
- ^ Yamaguchi MK, Hirukawa T, Kanazawa S (1995). "Judgment of gender through facial parts". Perception. 24 (5): 563–75. doi:10.1068/p240563. PMID 7567430. S2CID 6005313.
- ^ How your looks betray your personality – New Scientist (Magazine issue 2695) – 11 February 2009: Roger Highfield, Richard Wiseman, and Rob Jenkins
- ^ Burguete, Maria (2008). Science Matters: Humanities as Complex Systems. World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd., p. 66.
- ^ a b c d "The 'born criminal'? Lombroso and the origins of modern criminology". History Extra. Retrieved 2017-05-05.
- ^ a b c d e Mazzarello, P. (2011). "Cesare Lombroso: An anthropologist between evolution and degeneration". Functional Neurology. 26 (2): 97–101. PMC 3814446. PMID 21729591.
- ^ a b http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Cesare_Lombroso.
{{cite web}}: Missing or empty|title=(help) - ^ a b https://www.wired.com/2014/11/fantastically-wrong-criminal-anthropology/.
{{cite web}}: Missing or empty|title=(help) - ^ a b http://www.encyclopedia.com/people/social-sciences-and-law/crime-and-law-enforcement-biographies/cesare-lombroso.
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