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History of Research

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Research on the extinctions at the end of the Eocene, such as that of the Alvarez family, highlighted the discovery of iridium and other impact debris that could be dated back to the end of the Eocene. [1] This led scientists to believe that one major "terminal Eocene event" (or mass extinction) occurred, and that it had a single cause. [2] However, in the 1980s, studies were published that investigated the extinction in more depth; scientists examined soils, plants, snails, mammals, and oceans.[3] Scientists collaborated to discuss their findings and learn about current research at various symposiums; these included the 1985 International Geological Correlation Project and the 1989 Penrose Conference.[4] Most notably, the Ocean Drilling Project (ODP) provided scientists with new data on climate change that occurred in the Antarctic, contributing to an increased understanding of climatic factors that may have contributed to the Eocene-Oligocene extinction events.[5][6] Eventually, new data proved that the hypothesis of a single "terminal Eocene event" was implausible.[2][7]

Research Methods and Dating

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The timing of the Eocene and Oligocene epochs have been extensively debated by researchers. Historically, the Eocene-Oligocene boundary was placed somewhere between 32 to 38 million years ago. However, current advancements in dating technologies provide a more precise estimate of the date of the boundary.[8] Today, the most accurate estimate of the age of the boundary is approximately 34 million years old.[9][10][11]

Researchers encountered many obstacles in dating the Eocene-Oligocene boundary. Rocks from both the Eocene and Oligocene epochs proved to be difficult to date, since radiometrically datable materials were only available in select geographic locations, from specific volcanic ash layers.[4] Similar problems arose in dating materials from the oceans, as biostratigraphic studies could only be performed in select marine cores that contained volcanic minerals.[12] Additionally, the rocks that researchers were able to date, both from terrestrial and marine records, were difficult to correlate. Due to a shortage of radiometrically datable materials from oceans, researchers combined volcanic ash dates from terrestrial sources with those found in the marine record.[2] However, once magnetic stratigraphy was developed as a dating technology, it exposed errors in dating from both the original marine radiometric data, and the combined marine/terrestrial data that it contributed to.[13][14][3]

The role of argon-argon dating in the understanding of the Eocene-Oligocene extinction events is also notable. Argon-argon dating emerged as a new dating method, which scientists used to verify previous research.[15] It also allowed researchers to date what had previously been undateable, as the argon-argon method required less material and could detect contamination more easily. Due to this new technology, the age of the Eocene-Oligocene boundary was accurately estimated within a range of 100,000 to 200,000 years; previous dating methods had only verified the age of the boundary within 700,000 to one million years.[16] The developments in the understanding of the Eocene-Oligocene boundary that occurred because of argon-argon dating rendered many earlier time scales and research unusable and inaccurate.[7]

Pulses of Extinction

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The Eocene-Oligocene is not a single mass extinction event; rather, it consists of pulses of extinction, or extinction events, that occurred successively over a period of 10 million years, overlapping the Eocene-Oligocene boundary.[3] The most significant events took place near the end of the middle-Eocene, while others occurred in the early Oligocene.[17] The extinction event that correlated directly with the Eocene-Oligocene boundary was much smaller than the extinction events that preceded and succeeded it. Historically, researchers lumped these pulses of extinction into a single event; it is now believed that this inaccuracy was caused by poor dating technology and a lack of datable materials. This led to difficulties in differentiating between the short periods of time before and after the Eocene-Oligocene boundary.[2]

The pulsing nature of these extinctions is evident through the study of the marine record, which allowed for increased accuracy because of the many deposits that exist in the deep sea, which have been largely exempt from erosion. The marine record shows that pulses of climate change and extinction occurred during both the Eocene, Oligocene, and the transition period between them.[18] Terrestrial data provides additional evidence of this: materials obtained from the Rocky Mountains allowed researchers to determine the scope of the climate change and temperature shifts that occurred in succession across the boundary and contributed to the extinction events.[4][19]

During the earliest extinctions, which occurred in the middle of the Eocene epoch, up to 90% of species such as nano-plankton, planktonic forminifera, and molluscs disappeared. Researchers observed the extinction of diatoms, ostracodes, and echinoids, as well as other species, during the extinction event at the beginning of the Oligocene epoch.[2] This correlates with climatic data obtained from terrestrial plants. Researchers observed a drop in average temperature of 10 degrees celsius during the middle-Eocene, followed by a period of warming across the Eocene-Oligocene boundary; this may help explain why no significant extinctions occurred during this time.[2] A second drop in temperature of approximately 11 degrees celsius occurred in the early-Oligocene, which responds to the second extinction event observed.[20] Researchers also obtained data which suggest an increase in the range of mean annual temperature of up to 25 degrees celsius across the Eocene-Oligocene boundary.[2] The transition from the warm climate of the Eocene into the cooler Oligocene temperatures led not only to less diversity amongst species, but extinctions that affected both terrestrial and marine flora and fauna.[17][19]

Asteroid, Comet, and Volcanic Causal Hypotheses

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While extraterrestrial and volcanic hypotheses have been proposed to explain the climate change that occurred during the Eocene-Oligocene transition, there is limited evidence to support these ideas.[17][21] Studies of the Cretatious-Tertiary extinctions allowed for the discovery of materials such as iridium during the Eocene epoch, leading some researchers to believe that the extinctions were caused or perpetuated by an asteroid impact.[1] However, these materials cannot be precisely dated to correlate with the period of climate change that occurred near the Eocene-Oligocene boundary.[22] Scientists have proposed successive comet showers, as opposed to a single asteroid impact, as the cause of the extinction events.[23] However, some researchers do not believe that comets could produce the iridium, amongst other materials, that were dated back to the middle of the Eocene epoch. Doubts have also been raised as to whether or not any extraterrestrial impacts could produce the climatic changes observed during extinction events in the late-Eocene and early-Oligocene.[22] Additionally, researchers have cited volcanism as a possible cause for the extinction events, due to the discovery of volcanic ash in various marine cores.[24] However, this fails to explain the temperature cooling in the early-Oligocene. The hypotheses of an asteroid impact and comet showers fail to correlate directly with the pulses of extinction researchers have observed; the explanation of volcanism faces the same challenge.[2]

Tectonic/Climatic Causal Hypothesis

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Through the examination of the marine record, scientists discovered changes in oxygen isotopes, suggesting that Antarctic ice had existed before researchers previously believed.[25][9][10][11] A temperature drop in the early Oligocene can be observed through the study of these isotopes.[18][26][27] Evidence has also been found to demonstrate a central shift of cooler ocean waters from the Arctic and Antarctic, which lowered ocean temperatures.[6][28][12] Through these discoveries, many scientists came to the conclusion that glaciers existed during the Eocene and Oligocene epochs.[22][10][29] The development of ice may have led to a dramatic decrease in global sea levels, triggering mass climatic shifts.[9]

This development was likely caused by the emergence of the circum-Antarctic current.[30][17][31] The current prevents waters at the North and South poles from mixing with warmer waters, sustaining the cold Arctic and Antarctic climates. It also allows cooler waters to reach the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. Evidence exists to suggest that this current developed during the Eocene epoch; before it emerged, there was much less polarization of cold and warm waters, as they mixed more frequently.[32][33][34] As continents shifted, Australia and South America began to move away from Antarctica, allowing for cooler waters to reach new shores, and explaining the drops in temperature that correlate with the extinction events of the Eocene-Oligocene.[17][35] Additionally, the creation of a new passage, caused by continent movements between Norway and Greenland, allowed for the water of the Arctic Ocean to circulate and cool the Atlantic coast.[36] However, some researchers are skeptical of this hypothesis, and believe that the extinction events occurred too rapidly to be explained by slow-moving tectonic shifts. [37]

  1. ^ a b Alvarez, W; Asaro, F; Michel, BV; Alvarez, LW (1982). "Iridium anomaly approximately synchronous with terminal Eocene extinctions". Science. 216: 886–888.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h Prothero, Donald (1994). "The late Eocene-Oligocene extinctions". Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences. 22: 145–165.
  3. ^ a b c Miller, Kenneth G.; Feigenson, Mark D.; Wright, James D.; Clement, Bradford M. (1991-02-01). "Miocene isotope reference section, Deep Sea Drilling Project Site 608: An evaluation of isotope and biostratigraphic resolution". Paleoceanography. 6 (1): 33–52. doi:10.1029/90PA01941. ISSN 1944-9186.
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  5. ^ Hambrey, Michael; Birger, Larsen; Werner, Ehrmann (1989). "Forty million years of Antarctic glacial history yielded by Leg 119 of the Ocean Drilling Program". Polar Record. 25 (153): 99–106.
  6. ^ a b Zachos, JC; Lohmann, KC; Walker, JCG; Wise, SW (1993). "Abrupt climate change and transient climates during the Paleogene: a marine perspective". Journal of Geology. 101 (2): 191–213.
  7. ^ a b Prothero, Donald (1994). The Eocene-Oligocene Transition: Paradise Lost. Columbia University Press.
  8. ^ Premoli Silva, Isabella; Jenkins, D Graham (1993). "Decision on the Eocene-Oligocene boundary stratotype". International Commission on Stratigraphy: 379–382.
  9. ^ a b c DeConto, Robert M.; Pollard, David. "Rapid Cenozoic glaciation of Antarctica induced by declining atmospheric CO2". Nature. 421 (6920): 245–249. doi:10.1038/nature01290.
  10. ^ a b c Coxall, Helen K.; Wilson, Paul A.; Pälike, Heiko; Lear, Caroline H.; Backman, Jan. "Rapid stepwise onset of Antarctic glaciation and deeper calcite compensation in the Pacific Ocean". Nature. 433 (7021): 53–57. doi:10.1038/nature03135.
  11. ^ a b Dupont-Nivet, Guillaume; Krijgsman, Wout; Langereis, Cor G.; Abels, Hemmo A.; Dai, Shuang; Fang, Xiaomin. "Tibetan plateau aridification linked to global cooling at the Eocene–Oligocene transition". Nature. 445 (7128): 635–638. doi:10.1038/nature05516.
  12. ^ a b Miller, Kenneth G.; Fairbanks, Richard G. (1983-11-17). "Evidence for Oligocene–Middle Miocene abyssal circulation changes in the western North Atlantic". Nature. 306 (5940): 250–253. doi:10.1038/306250a0.
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  14. ^ Prothero, D; Swisher, CC (1992). Magneto-stratigraphy and geochronology of the terrestrial Eocene-Oligocene transition in North America: In Eocene-Oligocene Climatic and Biotic Evolution. Princeton University Press.
  15. ^ Odin, G; Guise, P; Rex, DC; Kreuzer, H (1988). K-Ar and Ar/Ar geochronology of late Eocene biotites from the northeastern Apennines. In The Eocene- Oligocene Boundary in the Marche-Umbria Basin (Italy). Ancona: IUGS Special Publication.
  16. ^ McDougall, I; Harrison, CGA (1988). Geochronology and Thermochronology by the Ar-Ar Method. New York: Oxford University Press.
  17. ^ a b c d e Molina, E; Gonzalvo, C; Keller, G (1993). "The Eocene-Oligocene planktic foraminiferal transition extinctions, impacts and hiatuses". Geological Magazine. 130 (4): 483–499.
  18. ^ a b Zachos, James C.; Quinn, Terrence M.; Salamy, Karen A. (1996-06-01). "High-resolution (104 years) deep-sea foraminiferal stable isotope records of the Eocene-Oligocene climate transition". Paleoceanography. 11 (3): 251–266. doi:10.1029/96PA00571. ISSN 1944-9186.
  19. ^ a b Wolfe, IA (1978). "A paleobotanical interpretation of Tertiary climates in the Northern hemisphere". American Science. 694–708: 694–703.
  20. ^ Sotak, Jan (2010). "Paleoenvironmental changes across the Eocene-Oligocene boundary: insights from the Central-Carpathian Paleogene Basin". Geologica Carpathica. 61 (5): 393–418. doi:10.2478/v10096-010-0024-1.
  21. ^ Keller, G (1986). "Stepwise mass extinction and impact events: late Eocene to early Oligocene". Marine Micropaleontology. 10: 267–293.
  22. ^ a b c Molina, E; Gonzalvo, C; Ortiz, S; Cruz, LE (2006). "Foraminiferal turnover across the Eocene-Oligocene transition at Fuente Caldera, southern Spain: No cause-effect relationship between meteorite impacts and extinctions". Marine Micropaleontology. 58: 270–286.
  23. ^ Hut, P; Alvarez, W; Elder, WP; Hansen, T; Kauffman, EG (1987). "Comet showers as a cause of mass extinctions". Nature. 329.
  24. ^ Rampino, MR; Stothers, RB (1998). "Flood basalt volcanism during the past 250 million years". Science. 241: 663–668.
  25. ^ Miller, Kenneth G.; Fairbanks, Richard G.; Mountain, Gregory S. (1987-02-01). "Tertiary oxygen isotope synthesis, sea level history, and continental margin erosion". Paleoceanography. 2 (1): 1–19. doi:10.1029/PA002i001p00001. ISSN 1944-9186.
  26. ^ Miller, Kenneth G.; Fairbanks, Richard G. (1983-11-17). "Evidence for Oligocene–Middle Miocene abyssal circulation changes in the western North Atlantic". Nature. 306 (5940): 250–253. doi:10.1038/306250a0.
  27. ^ Shackleton, N. J. (1986-10-01). "Boundaries and Events in the Paleogene Paleogene stable isotope events". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 57 (1): 91–102. doi:10.1016/0031-0182(86)90008-8.
  28. ^ Martin, H. A. (2006-08-01). "Cenozoic climatic change and the development of the arid vegetation in Australia". Journal of Arid Environments. Special Issue Historical biogeography and origin and evolution of arid and semi-arid environmentsSpecial Issue Historical biogeography and origin and evolution of arid and semi-arid environments. 66 (3): 533–563. doi:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2006.01.009.
  29. ^ Liu, Zhonghui; Pagani, Mark; Zinniker, David; DeConto, Robert; Huber, Matthew; Brinkhuis, Henk; Shah, Sunita R.; Leckie, R. Mark; Pearson, Ann (2009-02-27). "Global Cooling During the Eocene-Oligocene Climate Transition". Science. 323 (5918): 1187–1190. doi:10.1126/science.1166368. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 19251622.
  30. ^ Prothero, Donald (1985). "North American mammalian diversity and Eocene-Oligocene extinctions". Paleobiology. 11 (4): 389–405.
  31. ^ Lawver, Lawrence A.; Gahagan, Lisa M. (2003-09-15). "Evolution of Cenozoic seaways in the circum-Antarctic region". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. Antarctic Cenozoic palaeoenvironments: geologic record and models. 198 (1–2): 11–37. doi:10.1016/S0031-0182(03)00392-4.
  32. ^ Keller, G; MacLeod, N; Barrera, E (1992). Eocene-Oligocene faunal turnover in planktic foraminifera, and Antarctic glaciation: In Eocene-Oligocene Climatic and Biotic Evolution. Princeton University Press. pp. 218–244.
  33. ^ Frakes, Lawrence A.; Kemp, Elizabeth M. (1972-11-10). "Influence of Continental Positions on Early Tertiary Climates". Nature. 240 (5376): 97–100. doi:10.1038/240097a0.
  34. ^ Flower, Benjamin P.; Kennett, James P. (1994-04-01). "Cenozoic Climate and Paleogeographic Changes in the Pacific Region The middle Miocene climatic transition: East Antarctic ice sheet development, deep ocean circulation and global carbon cycling". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 108 (3): 537–555. doi:10.1016/0031-0182(94)90251-8.
  35. ^ Wade, Bridget; Pearson, Paul (2008). "Planktonic foraminiferal turnover, diversity fluctuations and geochemical signals across the Eocene/Oligocene boundary in Tanzania". Marine Micropaleontology. 68: 244–255.
  36. ^ TALWANI, MANIK; ELDHOLM, OLAV. "Evolution of the Norwegian-Greenland Sea". Geological Society of America Bulletin. 88 (7). doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1977)88<969:eotns>2.0.co;2.
  37. ^ Kennett, JP; Stott, LD (1990). "Proteus and Proto-Oceanus: ancestral Paleogene oceans as revealed from Antarctic stable isotopic results". Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program. 113: 865–880.
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