User:Aemilius Adolphin/History of Australia Draft

Territory representation

From 1863 to 1911, the Northern Territory was a part of South Australia. In 1890, South Australia made the Northern Territory a separate electoral district with two parliamentary representatives and granted the vote to its adult males (and adult females from 1895). Indigenous Australians also had the right to vote. The status of South Australian voters also qualified them to vote in elections for both Houses of the Commonwealth Parliament at the first federal elections in 1901. In 1911, however, the Northern Territory was transferred to the Commonwealth government. The territory was placed under the direct control of the federal Minister for External Affairs and the population had no parliamentary representation or voting rights. At the time of the Commonwealth takeover, the Territory's population was 3,031.

In 1922 the territory was granted one representative in the Australian House of Representatives. The member could speak in the House and take part in committee work, but could not vote, and did not count for the purpose of forming government. Indigenous people were excluded from voting for the representative. Between 1936 and 1959 the Member was only able to vote in motions to disallow laws made for the Territory, and between 1959 and 1968, the Member could only vote on matters relating to the Territory alone. In 1968, the Member for Northern Territory acquired full voting rights.

In 1947, the territory was granted a Legislative Council with six elected members and seven members appointed by the Administrator for the Northern Territory. Adult European residents of the territory were entitled to vote. In 1962, Aboriginal Territorians were granted the right to vote in territorial and federal elections.

In 1974, a fully elected Legislative Assembly was established and the Northern Territory had its first representative parliament. In 1977 the Commonwealth Parliament passed the Northern Territory (Self-Government) Act and the territory achieved responsible government. In 1978, the first ministry was established and the assembly was given responsibility for the finances of the territory.

After the 1974 federal election, the Whitlam Labor government legislation to give the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory representation in the Australian Senate, with two senators being elected from each, was passed by the subsequent Joint Sitting of parliament.

Racial restrictions

Main article: Voting rights of Indigenous Australians

Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islanders became British subjects as the colonies were settled throughout the continent, but actual participation in colonial society and access to civil rights was limited. Under the Queensland Elections Act (1885), no "aboriginal native of Australia, Asia, Africa, or the Islands of the Pacific" was entitled to vote. This restriction was extended to Torres Strait Islanders in 1930. In Western Australia, The Constitution Act Amendment Act of 1893 removed the property qualification for white male voters but retained it for "Aboriginal natives of Australia, Asia or Africa" and people of mixed descent. The property qualification (ownership of land that was valued at least £100) excluded virtually all such persons from the franchise.

While there were no specific restrictions in legislation on Indigenous people voting in the other colonies, other regulatory barriers often prevented them exercising that right. Between 1858 and 1926, New South Wales disqualified persons receiving aid from "any public charitable institution" from voting, and anyone living in Aboriginal reserves were considered to be receiving aid. Some exceptions were afforded to landholders and "half-caste" Aboriginals. In South Australia, most Indigenous people did not meet the requirement that all voters reside at a particular address for a specified period.

At the federal level, the Commonwealth Franchise Act 1902, excluded "natives of Australia, Asia, Africa and the Pacific Islands (other than New Zealand)" from the federal franchise, unless they were already enrolled to vote in an Australian state as at 1 January 1901. In 1925, British-Indians who met the residency requirements of the Commonwealth Electoral Act 1918 and naturalised Asian Australians were exempted from the disqualification.

In 1949, the Commonwealth Electoral Bill was enacted giving Aboriginal people the right to vote at Commonwealth elections if they were enfranchised under a State law or were a current or former member of the defence forces. The Commonwealth Electoral Act 1961 removed the disqualification on Africans and Pacific Islanders, and the Commonwealth Electoral Act 1962 gave Indigenous Australians the option of enrolling to vote at Commonwealth elections. The Commonwealth Electoral Amendment Act 1983 introduced compulsory voting for Indigenous Australians as was the case for other Australians.

At the state level, the Queensland Elections Act Amendment Act 1959 enfranchised British subjects who were natives of Asia or Africa. In 1962, Western Australia enfranchised Indigenous Australians and those of Asian, African or Pacific Islander descent. On 1 February 1966, Queensland extended voting rights to all Indigenous Australians, the last Australian jurisdiction to do so.

History 1901-1945

Add compusory voting! NSW 1928, Tasmania 1928,

Franchise

The Act excluded natives of Australia, Asia, Africa and the Pacific Islands (other than New Zealand) from the federal franchise, unless they were already enrolled to vote in an Australian state.

In 1893, Western Australia excluded Indigenous Australians, Asians and Africans from voting unless they met a property qualification. In 1885, Queensland excluded "Aboriginal natives of Australia, India, China or the South Sea Islands" from voting unless they met a property qualification.

Indigenous people of Australia, Asia, Africa and the Pacific Islands (excluding New Zealand) were not entitled to enroll to vote in a federal election unless they were already enrolled in a state and met the requirements of Section 41 of the Australian Constitution.

Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islanders became British subjects as the colonies were settled throughout the continent, but actual participation in colonial society and access to civil rights was limited. In Queensland and Western Australia, franchise qualification for an Indigenous person was dependent on their ownership of land that was valued at least £100, which was prohibitively expensive for the time and barred virtually all such persons from voting. While there were no specific restrictions in legislation on Indigenous voting in the other colonies, other regulatory barriers often prevented exercising that right. Between 1858 and 1926, New South Wales disqualified persons receiving aid from "any public charitable institution" from voting registration; anyone living in Aboriginal reserves were considered to be receiving aid. Some exceptions were afforded to landholders and "half-caste" Aboriginals.

Universal male suffrage was introduced in South Australia in 1856 followed by Victoria (1857), New South Wales (1858), Queensland 1872, Western Australia (1893) and Tasmania (1900).

Women were granted the vote in SA (1894), WA (1899), NSW (1902), TAS (1903), QLD (1905), VIC (1909). Ballanta (2013) p. 220

Under the Queensland Elections Act (1885). No aboriginal native of Australia, Asia, Africa, or the Islands of the Pacific was entitled to vote. (Norberry and George Williams (2002)) and Qld Fact sheet.

'Aboriginal natives of Australia, Asia or Africa' were disqualified from voting in Western Australia. (Norberry and George Williams (2002))

WA: "The Constitution Act Amendment Act of 1893 removed the property qualification for white male voters, but, in the context of the intensely racial thinking of the time, retained it for ‘aboriginal natives’ of Australia, Asia, and Africa, and people of mixed descent.” Curthoys and Mitchell (2013) P. 168

Women were granted the vote in SA (1894), WA (1899), NSW (1902), TAS (1903), QLD (1905), VIC (1909). Ballanta (2013) p. 220

Sources

Jaensch, Dean; Wade-Marshall, Deborah (1994). Point of Order!: The Legislative Assembly of the Northern Territory 1974-1994. Darwin: Legislative Assembly of the Northern Territory and Australian National University North Australia Research Unit.

Jaensch, Dean (1990). The Legislative Council of the Northern Territory: An Electoral History 1947-1974. Darwin: Australian National University North Australia Research Unit. ISBN 0731508734.

Hirst, John (2004). "The Distinctiveness of Australian Democracy, Lectures in the Senate Occasional Lecture Series 2003–2004". Papers on Parliament. 42. Department of the Senate, Parliament House, Canberra. ISSN 1031-976X.

Brown, Nicholas (2013). "Government, law and citizenship". In Bashford, Alison; Macintyre, Stuart (eds.). The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 2: The Commonwealth of Australia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-1070-1154-0.

Bellanta, Melissa (2013). "Rethinking the 1890s". In Bashford, Alison; Macintyre, Stuart (eds.). The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 1, Indigenous and Colonial Australia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-1070-1153-3.

Bennett, Scott (2001b). "Indigenous voting rights in Australia" (PDF). Australasian Parliamentary Review. 16 (1). Australasian Study of Parliament Group: 16–20. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 March 2020. Retrieved 19 October 2021.

Curthoys, Ann; Mitchell, Jessie (2013). "The advent of self-government". In Bashford, Alison; Macintyre, Stuart (eds.). The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 1, Indigenous and Colonial Australia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-1070-1153-3.

Evans, Julie; Grimshaw, Patricia; Philips, David; Swain, Shurlee (2003). Equal subjects, unequal rights: Indigenous peoples in British settler colonies, 1830–1910 (PDF). Manchester University Press. doi:10.7228/manchester/9780719060038.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-71906-003-8. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 February 2023. Retrieved 7 February 2023.

Norberry, Jennifer; Williams, George (2002). "Voters and the Franchise: the Federal Story". Australian Parliamentary Library, Parliament of Australia. Retrieved 13 August 2024.

Stephen, Ninian (2000). "Australian Citizenship: Past, Present and Future". Monash University Law Review. 26 (2). Monash University: 333–338. Archived from the original on 16 October 2021. Retrieved 13 October 2021 – via Australasian Legal Information Institute.

Phillips, Harry (2013). Electoral Law in the State of Western Australia: An Overview (PDF) (2nd ed.). Perth: Western Australian Electoral Commission. ISBN 9780980417340.

Religion

The Commonwealth constitution formalised the separation of church and state while guaranteeing freedom of religious worship. At federation, about 95% of the white population declared themselves Christian of which about 40% were Church of England, 20% Catholic, 14% Methodist and 10% Presbyterian. Religion had a strong ethnic element: most Australian Anglicans being of English descent, most Catholics of Irish descent and most Presbyterians of Scottish heritage.

School education was divided into separate state and Catholic education systems. Private schools with strong ties to the Protestant religions also provided schooling which mainly attracted more affluent families. About 40% of adults attended church regularly, and the family and social lives of many Australians revolved around the local church. In 1908, the papal decree Ne Temere declared protestant and civil marriage rites invalid which exacerbated divisions between Catholics, Protestants and secularists.

The First World War also sharpened the religious divide. At first, all churches supported the war, but the Catholic hierarchy became increasingly opposed to conscription which led many protestants to question their patriotism. After the war, Catholics generally supported the Labor Party while the conservative parties had stronger support among Protestants. Freemasonry flourished in business and politics and was generally pro-British and anti-Catholic.

Science

Federation brought an increase in national scientific organisations and centralised funding for the sciences. By 1943 there were about 500 scientific, technical and medical research institutions in Australia. Federal and state organisations were heavily involved in applied research for primary industry and manufacturing. Most research and funding was devoted to the life sciences. Museums multiplied and devoted themselves to the collection, classification and display of biological specimens and human artefacts, and the promotion of evolutionary science. Universities introduced more sub-disciplines of biology and botany. Research into plant physiology led to advances in agricultural production.

Earth sciences were also favoured because of their connection with agriculture and mining. The Australian Survey Office was established in 1910. Geological and meteorological research was integral to the Antarctic expeditions led by geologist Douglas Mawson in 1911-14 and 1929-31.

The First World War stimulated the foundation of the national Advisory Council of Science and Industry in 1916 which eventually became the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) in 1926. The CSIR established a Radiophysics unit in 1939. Two Australian scientists, Eric Burhop and Mark Oliphant, were seconded to the allied atomic bomb project during WWII.

Medical research was boosted by federal organisations such as the Australian Institute for Tropical Medicine (1910), the Commonwealth Serum Laboratories (1916) and the National Health and Medical Research Council (1936). Macfarlane Burnett conducted important research into immunology in the 1930s and 1940s, and Norman McCallister Gregg first published his groundbreaking research into maternal rubella in 1941.

Arts

In the first decade of the century, established writers such as Henry Lawson and Banjo Paterson and new voices such as Steele Rudd Miles Franklin, Joseph Furphy and Henry Handel Richardson helped forge a distinctive national literature. The following decades saw the emergence of critically acclaimed poets such as Christopher Brennan, John Shaw Nielson and Kenneth Slessor. The Jindyworobak movement of the late 1930s sought to create a new Australian literature drawing on Aboriginal traditions.

Australian fiction in the 1930s and 1940s was dominated by popular novelists such as Ion Idriess. Eleanor Dark, Katherine Susannah Pritchard and Christina Stead attracted critical acclaim.

Painting was dominated by a conservative nationalism which prized Australian landscape painting in the Heidelberg School tradition. Albert Namatjira became famous for fusing western landscape painting with traditional Aboriginal concern for country. A modernist reaction to the Heidelberg tradition spawned the work of artists such as Margaret Preston, Sidney Nolan, Albert Tucker and photographer Max Dupain.

Local cinema flourished in the first two decades of the century, with films about bushrangers such as The Story of the Kelly Gang (1906) and rural comedies such as On Our Selection (1920) proving popular. Local film production, however, halved in the 1930s in the face of competition from Hollywood. Ken G. Hall and Charles Chauvel, nevertheless, were successful directors in this decade.

Before the First World War, Australian theatre was dominated by British drama, bushranger plays and rural comedies. Attempts to establish an Australian national theatre were short-lived, but Louis Esson's The Time Is Not Yet Ripe (1912) was a notable work. In the inter-war years, Australian drama was fostered by the overtly political New Theatre Movement and small repertory theatres. Katherine Susannah Pritchard's Brumby Innes (1927) is notable. Poet Douglas Stewart wrote successful verse dramas for radio in the 1940s.

Australian composers of the period mostly produced conservative work based on mainstream British and European models. George Marshall-Hall was a British composer who migrated to Melbourne in 1891 and whose opera Stella (1909) is set in colonial Australia. Alfred Hill also composed operas including Auster (1922) and Ship of Heaven (1923). Percy Grainger was successful internationally for his short compositions in the style of British folk tunes although he also wrote longer orchestral pieces and experimental works. Alfred Hill and Margaret Sutherland are notable for their chamber music of the 1920s and 1930s. Clive Martin Douglas attempted to incorporate Aboriginal influences in his music and is notable for his operetta Kaditcja (1938) and his symphonic poem Carwoola (1939).

Australian popular songs before the First World War mostly drew on music hall and overseas trends such as ragtime. Nellie Melba remained popular on stage and in gramophone recordings. Local commercial record production began in 1926 and May Brahe's "Bless this House" (1927) became the most recorded Australian song. Jack O'Hagan wrote several successful songs with Australian themes including "Along the Road to Gundagai" (1922) . Most Australian live music and recordings were heavily derivative of popular British and American styles such as the sentimental songs of the 1930s and swing music of the 1930s and 1940s.

[Pop culture such as sport, vaudeville, jazz, dance halls, swing, cinema, radio, should be incorporated in main history section.]

Sport

Football, cricket and horce racing grew in popularity over this period.

The 1917 funeral of boxer Les Darcy was a major public event. SIA p 12-13. Australia recruited spotsmen's regiment in WWI. 13. The Victoria dominated Australin football over this period. p 24. The major growth in corwd numbers was after WWI as Australin celebrated peace and prosperity. Crowds remained stable in the 1930s as football was cheap entertainment. By 1946, total attedndance at the Victorian Football league competition topped 2 million. 32-33.

Professional boxing boomed before the war. 20,000 spectators saw the world heavyweight title fight in Sydney in 1908. Travelling boxing shows were popular in rural Australia. 43. but was discouraged by government during WWI. Boxing revived between the wars and continued thougout the war. Popularity declined after WWII. 41-44.

History 1788-1850

Science and technology

The new colony was of particular scientific and technological interest in Britain. Up to 1820, Joseph Banks was the chief promoter of the colony's importance to botany and agricultural technology and he corresponded frequently with the early governors on these subjects. William Hooker also promoted the study of Australian botany, Roderick Murchison its geology, and Richard Owen its zoology and palaeontology.

Culture

Aboriginal groups continued the artistic traditions they had practised for thousands of years. They made art works on bark, stone and their bodies, and in the sand and earth of their land. They told stories of ancestral beings and the Dreaming. They performed their culture and its stories in song, music and dance. Songmen and women were skilled in correctly singing the songlines of the ancestral beings who created the landscape, and in passing on new songs sent to them in dreams. Aboriginal history, law and creation stories were transmitted orally through generations.

The colonists also transmitted their cultures orally and through song, music, art and performance, but also through writing. Governor Macquarie commissioned emancipist Michael Massey Robinson to write verse to celebrate the birthdays of George III and Queen Charlotte. Alongside such official verse, satirical verse written by convicts such as Frank the Poet flourished.

History 1851-1900

Religion, education and culture

Religion

There was no established church in the colonies and the major churches were largely divided along ethnic lines, the Church of England's adherents being mostly of English heritage, Presbyterians mostly Scottish and Catholics mostly Irish. The decades from the gold rushes brought an increase in population and religion. Church attendance among Anglicans and Presbyterians doubled in the 1860s, but growth of Catholicism and Methodism was even higher. Chinese religions and Christian sects also gained a foothold. Nevertheless, some 30 to 40% of the population did not regularly attend church by 1871. Missionary organisations such as the Bush Missionary Society and the Bible Christian Bush Mission attempted to combat this. City missions were also established.

Education

In the 1850s, most schooling was conducted by religious organisations. The Catholic church ran colleges and convent schools in the major settlements and country areas which catered for both Catholics and Protestants. Protestant schools mainly catered for pupils from affluent backgrounds and emphasised preparation for the professions. In 1861, however, only half of school age children were literate and colonial governments became more committed to universal secular education.

Culture

Magazines and newspapers continued to be the major means of publication of Australian novels and poetry. Marcus Clarke's For the Term of His Natural Life was serialised in 1870-72 before being published as a book in Melbourne and London a few years later. Rolf Boldrewood's Robbery Under Arms was serialised in 1882-83 before book publication in 1888. Charles Harpur, Henry Kendall and Adam Lindsay Gordon were prominent in attempts to establish a "national poetry" from the 1860s.

Sport

Spectator sports flourished over this period. Intercolonial cricket in Australia started in 1851 and the first cricket "Test Match" between Australia and England took place in Melbourne in 1877. Australian Rules Football began in 1858, and became popular in Victoria, South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania. The 1890 Victorian Football Association final drew a crowd of 33,000. The first metropolitan Rugby Union competition was organised in Sydney in 1874 and the sport became popular in New South Wales and Queensland. By 1900, matches in Sydney drew crowds of up to 15,000. Boxing and horse racing were also popular. By the 1880s, the Melbourne Cup drew crowds of around 100,000. However, the first modern Olympics at Athens in 1896 attracted only one Australian competitor.

Notes

Barron Field, the supreme court judge, published First Fruits of Australian Poetry (1819 and 1823). Best known for "The Kangaroo". Also wrote an ode to Captain Cook.

Early poems with patriotic Australian themes include William Wentworth's "Australasia" (1823) and Charles Thompson's Wild Notes From the Lyre of a Native Minstrel. (1826). In 1845, the radical republican Charles Harpur published Thoughts: a Series of Sonnets and went on to become an influential Australian poet.

Also popular tradition of ballads, songs and lampoons brought by covicts and settlers from Britain and Ireland.

In prose, colonial officers Watkin Tench and David Collins published early accounts of the colony.

Wealthy settlers sometimes amassed large private libraries. The Australian Subscription Library was established in Sydney in 1826, but charged high fees and members had to be nominated. There was no literry journal until 1857.

Before the 1850s, there was no Australian book publishing industry and few professional authors. Stories and poetry were published in newspapers and magazines, and books were mostly published in Britain or self-published in Australia.

By the 1840s, English books and magazines were imported in large numbers with a four month delay. There was also a growing demand for local content which was satisfied by Australian magazines which included poetry and prose by local authors. However, most of these magazines were short-lived, and sustainable local publications only took off in 1850s.

Biographies and novels of convicts were popular. Henry Savery's novel of convict life Quintus Servinton (1830-31), James Tucker's Ralph Rashleigh (1844-45). Dalziell. p 99-100. Novels of emigration to Australia became popular in the 1840s. examples Charles Rowcroft's Tales of the Colonies (1843) and Thomas McCombie Adventures of a Colonist (1845). Mary Theresa Vidal Tales for the Bush (1845). Moral stories directed against Caroline Chisolm. Popular in England and Australia and went through many editions.

In art, the Port Jackson Painters recorded the growth of the settlement, the local Aboriginal people and the flora and fauna of the colony. Convict artists such as Thomas Watling, Joseph Lycett and Thomas Bock painted landscapes, portraits of affluent settlers, scenes of colonial life and official commissions. Augustus Earle, John Glover and Conrad Martens were English artists who visited or migrated to Australia in the 1820s and 1830s and painted influential Australian landscapes.

Australia's first colonial music was the popular ballads and folk songs brought by convicts and settlers. Military music was also commonly performed in the early years of the colony. Military musicians often performed at church services, balls and other official and private functions. The first known local composition was a set of quadrilles written by the bandmaster Reichenberg in 1825. English musician John Phillip Deane (who arrived in Australia in 1822), Irish composer William Vincent Wallace (who arrived in 1835) and English composer Isaac Nathan (who arrived in 1841) all helped develop an early musical culture in the Australian colonies.

Historiography

The historiography of Australia refers to the publications produced by historians of Australia, and the sources, critical methods, topics and interpretations they have used and examined. Many 19th century histories were written by prominent settlers or commissioned by colonial governments intent on influencing British policy in the colony or promoting British investment and immigration. Professional academic history began in the 1890s, dominated by "imperial" interpretations in which Australia was seen as a successful example of a flourishing British society in a new land.

20th century historiography up to the 1960s was dominated by competing imperial and nationalist interpretations. Nationalist historians emphasised an independent Australian identity forged in war and a democratic ethos dating back to the goldfields of the 1850s. From the 1960s, these schools were challenged by historians using a variety of approaches including Marxist analysis of the Australian labour movement, geopolitical analysis of factors such as Australia's physical size and distance from Europe and America, and the role of luck and chance in shaping Australian society. From the 1970s, histories of marginalised groups such as Indigenous Australians, women, migrants and those with minority sexualities became more prominent.

At the turn of the 21st century, a series of public controversies dubbed "the history wars" sparked heated political and media debate over whether a "black armband" historical orthodoxy was overemphasising the role of racism, violence, inequality and environmental degradation in Australia's history. Historical practice, however, became more diversified and less centred in universities, with the flourishing of oral histories, local histories, family histories, interdisciplinary histories, and transnational approaches which analyse Australian history in a global and regional context.

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