Robert George Strange (November 26, 1881 – February 22, 1952) was an American actor during the first half of the 20th century, performing in theater and film. His Broadway career spanned 20 years, from 1913 through 1933, and included appearances in over 30 plays.[1][2] He then appeared in film throughout the 1930s and 40s, in such roles as Waxey Armitage in Special Agent (1935), Dr. Hubert Foote in The Story of Vernon and Irene Castle (1939), Art in High Sierra (1941) and John Malcolm in Adventures of Captain Marvel (1941).[3]
Robert Strange | |
---|---|
Born | |
Died | February 22, 1952 Woodland Hills, California, U.S. | (aged 70)
Resting place | Oakwood Memorial Park Cemetery |
Occupation | Actor |
Spouse(s) |
Florence Stockwell
(m. 1905; div. 1915)Diantha Pattison
(m. 1920; div. 1929)Ruth Dean Griffiths Rickaby
(m. 1938) |
Early life and career
editStrange was born in New York City, the elder of two sons[4] born to William Crawford Strange and Mary Young.[5] He attended Columbia Grammar and Preparatory School and Columbia University, where he played football.[6][7] He also set a bicycle-racing record at age seventeen and spent eight seasons as goaltender for the New York Athletic Club hockey team, helping the squad win two championships.[6]
Strange started a real estate career, but was drawn to acting, performing with various companies, including one headed by Blanche Bates.[8] He became a member of Washington Square Players, while remaining employed as supervisor of a diamond-cutting factory, before appearing in a string of Broadway plays[8] from 1913 to 1933 (and occasionally thereafter), including The Famous Mrs. Fair, which ran for nearly a year.[2]
Later career
editFrom 1931, after the introduction of sound films, he was "in constant demand" for character roles by the film studios.[8] Some of his best known film roles were Waxey Armitage in Special Agent (1935), Dr. Hubert Foote in The Story of Vernon and Irene Castle (1939), Art in High Sierra (1941) and John Malcolm in Adventures of Captain Marvel (1941).[3]
In the fall of 1940, having relocated to the San Fernando Valley, Strange and his wife, herself a veteran stage and radio actress, joined the faculty of the Leslie Academy of the Dance, directing its newly instituted drama program.[9][10] An outgrowth of this development was their little theatre troupe, the Strange Show Shop. One notable alumnus of both the school and the troupe emerged the following summer, when 16-year-old Farley Granger delivered his "monologue satire" as part of an event staged to benefit the Van Nuys contingent of the Women's Ambulance and Defense Corps.[11] As of October 1942, Granger was still being described as a "pupil of Mr. and Mrs. Strange."[12]
Personal life and death
editStrange was married on at least three occasions, the first two marriages ending in divorce. All three spouses were fellow performers. The first, Florence Edith Stockwell (1905–1915),[13][14] was an accomplished contralto soloist who would fall victim to a fatal car crash just two years after their divorce.[15] The second, from 1920 until 1929, was fellow thespian Diantha Pattison,[16] with whom Strange collaborated extensively in 1922, when they joined Detroit's Woodward Players, performing a new play each week for seven months.[17] In 1929, the couple's widely publicized divorce on grounds of adultery was uncontested and promptly granted to Pattison following "15 minutes of spicy testimony."[18][19] Strange's final and most successful marriage, from October 1938 until his death, was to actress Ruth Dean Rickaby.[5][9][20]
On February 22, 1952, Strange died at the Motion Picture Country Hospital in Los Angeles, California. Survived by his wife, his cremated remains were interred at the Oakwood Memorial Park Cemetery.[21]
Stage credits
editPlays | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Year | Play | Role | Theater | Notes |
1913 | Children of Tomorrow | Harris Theatre | December 1, 1913 – December 1913 | |
1915 | The Attick | Rev. Jonas Boutwell | Bandbox Theatre | October 4, 1915 – May 20, 1916 |
The Age of Reason | Bandbox Theatre | October 4, 1915 – May 20, 1916 | ||
1916 | The Seagull | Dr. Dorn | Bandbox Theatre | May 20, 1916 – May 31, 1916 |
Literature | Comedy Theatre | August 30, 1916 – ? | ||
1917 | The Scrap of Paper | Criterion Theatre | September 17, 1917 – November 1917 | |
In the Zone | Comedy Theatre | October 31, 1917 – Apr 27, 1918 | ||
1918 | Youth | Comedy Theatre | February 3, 1966 – March 13, 1966 | |
Mrs Warren's Profession | Sir George Crofts | Comedy Theatre | March 11, 1918 – November 11, 1918 | |
Nothing But Lies | Longacre Theatre | October 8, 1918 – February 1919 | ||
1919 | I Love You | Booth Theatre, 48th Street Theatre | April 22, 1919 – ?, June 2, 1919 – ? | |
First Is Last | Harvey | Maxine Elliott's Theatre | September 11, 1919 – November 1919 | |
The Famous Mrs. Fair | E. Dudley Gillette | Henry Miller's Theatre | December 22, 1919 – October 17, 1920 | |
1921 | Nobody's Money | Carl Russell | Longacre Theatre[22] | August 17, 1921 – September 1921 |
Wait Til We're Married | James Twells | Playhouse Theatre | September 26, 1921 – ? | |
The Straw | Fred Nicholls | Greenwich Village Theatre | November 10, 1921 – November 1921 | |
1922 | Scandal | Sutherland York | Majestic Theatre | January 15, 1922 – January 20, 1922[23] |
Common Clay | W. P. Yates | Majestic Theatre | January 30, 1922 – February 3, 1922[24] | |
It Pays to Advertise | Ellery Clark | Majestic Theatre | March 26, 1922 – March 31, 1922[25] | |
Under Cover | Steven Denby | Majestic Theatre | June 11, 1922 – June 15, 1922[26] | |
Kick In | Whip Fogarty | Majestic Theatre | July 9, 1922 – July 14, 1922[27] | |
Banco | George Dalou | Ritz Theatre | September 20, 1922 – November 1922 | |
1923 | Mike Angelo | Ivan Smirnoff | Morosco Theatre | January 8, 1923 – February 1923 |
The Dice of the Gods | Buchanan Lawrence | National Theatre | April 5, 1923 – April 1923 | |
In Love With Love | Frank Oakes | Ritz Theatre | August 6, 1923 – November 1923 | |
1924 | The Dust Heap | Pat O'Day | Vanderbilt Theatre | April 24, 1924 – May 1924 |
1925 | A Good Bad Woman | Dr. Carlyle Lawler | Comedy Theatre | February 9, 1925 – February 1925 |
The Gorilla | Arthur Marsden | Comedy Theatre | April 28, 1925 – May 1925 | |
1926 | Sandalwood | George | Gaiety Theatre | September 22, 1926 – October 1926 |
1928 | Heavy Traffic | Wilbur Richardson | Empire Theatre | September 5, 1928 – October 1928 |
A Most Immoral Lady | Arthur Marsden | Cort Theatre | November 26, 1928 – April 1929[16] | |
1929 | A Strong Man's House | Simeon Fitch | Ambassador Theatre | September 16, 1929 – October 5, 1929 |
Seven | Captain Otis | Theatre Republic | December 27, 1929 – January 1930 | |
1930 | Virtue's Bed | Major Harry Austin | Hudson Theatre | April 15, 1930 – June 1930 |
Midnight | Plunkett | Guild Theatre, Avon Theatre | Dec 29, 1930 – Feb. 7, 1931 | |
1931 | Three Times the Hour | Lawrence M. Blake | Avon Theatre | August 25, 1931 – September 1931 |
1933 | Marathon | "Too Soon" Decker | Mansfield Theatre | January 27, 1933 – January 1933[28] |
Both Your Houses | Plunkett | Royale Theatre | March 6, 1933 – May 6, 1933[29] | |
1934 | We Die Exquisitely | Red Barn Theatre (Locust Valley, New York) | July 2, 1934 – July 8, 1934.[30] "Melodrama set [aboard] luxury air liner," co-starring Lee Patrick and James Stewart.[31] | |
1938 | On Borrowed Time | Dr. Evans | Lobero Theater Geary Theater Biltmore Theater |
July 4, 1938 – July 10, 1938,[32] July 11, 1938 –?[33] August 8, 1938 – August 20, 1938[34][35] |
1940 | Margin for Error | Dr. Jennings | El Capitan Theater | March 23, 1940 – April 6, 1940[36][37] |
Back to Eden | Wilshire Ebell Theatre | September 10, 1940 – September 15, 1940[38][39] | ||
1947 | State of the Union | Senator Lauterback (replacement) | Hudson Theatre | May 19, 1947 – May 31, 1947[40][41][42] |
Selected filmography
edit- The Smiling Lieutenant (1931)[43]
- The Cheat (1931)[8][44]
- Misleading Lady (1932)[45]
- These 30 Years (1933)[46][47]
- Frisco Kid (1935)[1]
- Special Agent (1935)[48]
- Beware of Ladies (1936)[1]
- The Murder of Dr. Harrigan (1936)[49]
- The Walking Dead (1936)[50][51]
- Trapped by Television (1936)[52]
- Roaming Lady (1936)[1]
- Spendthrift (1936)[1]
- Beloved Enemy (1936)[1]
- Stolen Holiday (1937)[1]
- Marked Woman (1937)[1]
- John Meade's Woman (1937)[53]
- "Sky Giant" (1938)[3]
- The Saint Strikes Back (1939)[54]
- The Story of Vernon and Irene Castle (1939)[55]
- You Can't Get Away with Murder (1939)[56]
- They Made Me a Criminal (1939)[1]
- The Angels Wash Their Faces (1939)[1]
- Castle on the Hudson (1940)[57]
- King of the Royal Mounted (1940)[58]
- Gambling on the High Seas (1940)[1]
- Robin Hood of the Pecos (1941)[59]
- High Sierra (1941)[60]
- Adventures of Captain Marvel (1941)[58]
- Paper Bullets (1941)[3]
- Desert Bandit (1941)[1]
- Arizona Cyclone (1941)[1]
- Paper Bullets (1941)[1]
- The Mad Monster (1942)[51]
- Perils of Nyoka (1942)[58]
- Dead Men Walk (1943)[51]
- Silver Trails (1949)
- The Far Frontier (1949)[61]
References
edit- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n "Robert Strange, Filmography". American Film Institute. Archived from the original on July 20, 2024. Retrieved July 20, 2024.
- ^ a b "Robert Strange". Internet Broadway Database. Archived from the original on April 5, 2023. Retrieved July 20, 2024.
- ^ a b c d "Robert Strange", Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved July 24, 2024
- ^ "Obituaries: William Crawford Strange, Jr.". Santa Ana Register. p. 4. Retrieved July 23, 2024.
- ^ a b "California, County Marriages, 1850–1953", FamilySearch (https://www.familysearch.org/ark:/61903/1:1:K8VW-Y58 : Sat Mar 09 08:46:59 UTC 2024), Entry for Robert Geo Strange and Ruth Dean Griffiths Rickaby, 7 October 1938.
- ^ a b "Strange, Athletic Actor". The Brooklyn Eagle. June 17, 1917. Sec. 6, p. 7. Retrieved July 23, 2024.
- ^ "Athletics at Columbia". The New York Times. December 6, 1901. p. 2. Retrieved July 23, 2024.
- ^ a b c d "Robert Strange's Career Has Been Interesting". Brooklyn Daily Times. November 29, 1931. p. 12. Retrieved July 23, 2024.
- ^ a b "Noted Pair Joins Academy Staff". The Van Nuys News. October 24, 1940. p. 11. Retrieved July 23, 2024.
- ^ "We're Glad to Be Back 'Cause IT'S FUN TO DANCE". The Van Nuys News. September 11, 1941. pt. II, p. 2. Retrieved July 26, 2024.
- ^ "New Theater Group Will Give Benefit for Corps". The Van Nuys News. July 24, 1941. p. 10. Retrieved July 26, 2024.
- ^ "Hospitality of Whitsett Home Draws Throng". The Van Nuys News. October 2, 1942. p. 12. Retrieved July 26, 2024.
- ^ "Married: Strange-Stockwell". The New York Times. June 4, 1905. p. 9. Retrieved July 23, 2024.
- ^ "Actor Takes Trip to Woods; Wifey Leaves Him Flat". Bridgeport Evening Farmer. May 28, 1915. p. 1. Retrieved July 23, 2024.
- ^ "Former Buffalo Singer Loses Life in Auto Accident; Mrs. Florence Stockwell Strange; Singer Well Known in Buffalo Killed Suddenly". Buffalo Courier. August 11, 1917. p. 5. Retrieved July 29, 2024.
- ^ a b Jacobs, Frank (May 15, 1929). "'Immoral Lady' Model Man Not Moral, Says Wife's Suit". New York Daily News. p. 3. Retrieved July 23, 2024.
- ^ Shaw, Len G. (July 30, 1922). "Protracted Lovemaking Comes to an End at the Majestic; Now the Great Lovers Will Go Their Separate Ways". Detroit Free Press. pt. 5, p. 8. Retrieved July 29, 2024.
- ^ "Social Affairs". The Omaha World-Herald. May 16, 1929. p. 17. Retrieved July 29, 2024.
- ^ "Reno Is Beaten for Speed in Mrs. Strange's Divorce; 'Most Immoral Lady' Actor Defaults Wife's Action". New York Daily News. May 16, 1929. p. 41. Retrieved July 29, 2024.
- ^ "Funeral Notices: Strange, Robert G.". Valley Times. February 25, 1952. p. 12. Retrieved July 23, 2024.
- ^ "Obituary Notices: Robert George Strange". Van Nuys News. February 28, 1952. p. 11-C. Retrieved July 24, 2024.
- ^ Oppenheimer, George (January 29, 1969). "On Stage: 'Fire's' Fire dims as Symbols Clash". Newsday. p. 54A.
- ^ Culver, Harriet (January 16, 1922). The Theater. Detroit Free Press. p. 6. Retrieved July 28, 2024.
- ^ Shaw, Len G. (January 31, 1922). The Theater. Detroit Free Press. p. 6. Retrieved July 28, 2024.
- ^ Hart, H. D. (March 27, 1922). "The Theater". Detroit Free Press. p. 6. Retrieved July 28, 2024.
- ^ M., C. M. (June 12, 1922). "The Theater". Detroit Free Press. p. 6. Retrieved July 28, 2024.
- ^ Shaw, Len G. (July 10, 1922). "The Theater". Detroit Free Press. p. 6. Retrieved July 28, 2024.
- ^ Pollock, Arthur (March 7, 1933). "The Theaters: Maxwell Anderson's New Play, 'Both Your Houses,' Holding the Mirror Up to Washington, Opens at the Royale". The Brooklyn Eagle. p. 8. Retrieved July 28, 2024. "The scene is Washington, the House Office Building, and in the office of the chairman of the Appropriations Committee and in the committee room we see our Representatives at work representing us. [...] Robert Strange, usually a bad actor in bad plays, is the committee's chairman and plays the role beautifully."
- ^ Pollock, Arthur (March 7, 1933). "The Theaters: Maxwell Anderson's New Play, 'Both Your Houses,' Holding the Mirror Up to Washington, Opens at the Royale". The Brooklyn Eagle. p. 8. Retrieved July 28, 2024. "The scene is Washington, the House Office Building, and in the office of the chairman of the Appropriations Committee and in the committee room we see our Representatives at work representing us. [...] Robert Strange, usually a bad actor in bad plays, is the committee's chairman and plays the role beautifully."
- ^ "Summer Theaters: Locust Valley, L.I.". July 1, 1934. p. 26. Retrieved July 25, 2024.
- ^ "Theater News". The Brooklyn Eagle. June 30, 1934. p. 7. Retrieved July 28, 2024.
- ^ "Lobero Play Cast Arrives". Santa Barbara Cast Arrives. June 28, 1938. p. 7. Retrieved July 25, 2024.
- ^ "'On Borrowed Time' Boasts Star Cast". Oakland Post-Enquirer. July 1, 1934. p. 20. Retrieved July 25, 2024.
- ^ Scheuer, Philip K. (August 8, 1938). "'On Borrowed Time' Rich Human Parable". The Los Angeles Times.
- ^ "Three Matinees for 'Borrowed Time'". Los Angeles Daily News. August 17, 1938. p. 19. Retrieved July 25, 2024.
- ^ Schallert, Edwin (March 25, 1940). "'Margin for Error' Rises to Ingenious Climax". The Los Angeles Times. p. 16. Retrieved July 25, 2024.
- ^ "San Francisco Next for Boothe Play". Los Angeles Daily News. April 5, 1940. p. 31.
- ^ "Beckhard's Play in Reopening at Ebell". Hollywood Citizen-News. September 11, 1940. p. 4. Retrieved July 25, 2024.
- ^ "'Back to Eden' Closing Sunday". The Los Angeles Times. September 13, 1940. p. 21. Retrieved July 25, 2024.
- ^ "Nagel Heads 'Union' Cast Billed Here" August 4, 1946. p. 24. Retrieved July 25, 2024.
- ^ Francis, Bob (May 31, 1947). "Follow-Up Review: State of the Union". The Billboard. p. 32. ProQuest 1040085982.
Mrs. Draper – Elizabeth Slifer; William Hardy – Thomas Reynolds; Senator Lauterback – Robert Strange [...] Now that the standbys are on vacation, the National (or road) troupe has taken over matters at the Hudson.
- ^ "Transcontinental Company of 'State of the Union' Takes Over Tomorrow". The Brooklyn Eagle. May 18, 1947. p. 28. Retrieved July 28, 2024. "Featured in the company which will be seen at the Hudson for the next two weeks are Leona Maricle, Forrest Orr and Patrick McVey, and among the cast are Laura Pierpont, Elizabeth Slifer, Donald Foster, Robert Strange, Lillian West, Wallace Rooney, Will Scholtz, Tom Reynolds, Adnia Rice, George Eldredge and Wedgwood Nowell. Monday will mark the 317th performance for the company which began its tour last August in San Diego and played 30 cities in its trip along the Western Coast and across country."
- ^ Hall, Mordaunt (May 31, 1931). "CHEVALIER'S NEW FILM: "Smiling Lieutenant" Rich in Mirth and Melody". The New York Times. p. X5. ProQuest 99395225.
Among those in the supporting cast are Miriam Hopkins, Claudette Colbert, George Barbier, Robert Strange and Charles Ruggles, all of whom rise to the occasion.
- ^ Dimon, Howard P. (December 11, 1931). "Amusements: His Mark". Atlantic City Press. p. 19. Retrieved July 24, 2024. "Harvey Stephens as the loyal husband, Arthur Hohl as the defense attorney and Robert Strange as the district attorney also turn in distinctive performances."
- ^ "CINEMA TOPICS: "Tell England" Showing at the Queen's "THE LOVE PARADE."". South China Morning Post. August 24, 1932. p. 9. ProQuest 1757393982.
Four colleges are represented in the cast of 'The Misleading Lady.' [...] Robert Strange, who has the role of the theatrical magnate, 'Parker,' went to Columbia University in New York for two years and then gave up his collegiate work to go into business with his brother.
- ^ "FORD'S COMM'L PIC BALLY TO BLANKET U. S.". Variety. December 12, 1933. p. 1. ProQuest 1529263149.
Picture is 'These 30 Years,'an indie produced by Carabel Films. Film, with fiction background, is said to have plenty of plugs for the Ford product. David Morris, Alice John, Robert Strange, David MacDonald and other well known players from legit.
- ^ "Motion Pictures: First Commercial Shown in Philly". The Billboard. December 16, 1933. p. 19. ProQuest 1032034848.
PHILADELPHIA, Dec. 9.—First commercial feature film to show in Philadelphia opens today at the Locust Street Theater. It is These Thirty Years, sponsored by the Ford Motor Company and presented here on rental by Ford dealers of the territory. Film, running close to and hour and a half, has a fiction background dealing with the rise of the auto industry. Cast is Broadway legit, including Robert Strange, Alice John, Donald MacDonald and other well-known names.
- ^ "'SPECIAL AGENT' MEDIOCRE: Falls Below Par Of 'G' Men Cycle". The Hollywood Reporter. August 15, 1935. p. 4. ProQuest 2297242778.
Bette Davis, George Brent and Ricardo Cortez did standard jobs in their respective parts. Robert Strange as one of Cortez' gamblers was very effective in his characterization and stood out among the supporting roles.
- ^ "Showmen's Review". Motion Picture Herald. February 1, 1936. p. . Retrieved July 23, 2024.
- ^ "Strange—Not Harvey". The Hollywood Reporter. February 26, 1936. p. 4. ProQuest 2298643296.
Without taking anything away from Paul Harvey, The Reporter's review on 'Walking Dead' gave a bad break to Robert Strange when it credited unusually effective close-ups in the horror picture to Harvey instead of to Strange.
- ^ a b c Weaver, Tom (1993). Poverty Row Horrors!: Monogram, PRC, and Republic Horror. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company. p. 99. ISBN 9780899507569. "Robert Strange, a seedy, citified actor with scores of credits (including horror films The Walking Dead, 1936, and The Mad Monster and serials Adventures of Captain Marvel, 1941, and Perils of Nyoka, 1942) is badly miscast as a cantankerous rube in a comically crumpled hat. (The film's credits list him as playing Harper, but in the film he's called Wilkins.)"
- ^ Wear. (June 17, 1936). "Film review: Trapped by Television". Variety. p. 23. ProQuest 1475888253.
Thurston Hall turns in a standard biz executive interpretation. Robert Strange is a suave villain.
- ^ "'John Meade's Woman' A-l: Larrimore Triumph In Schulberg Pic". The Hollywood Reporter. February 9, 1937. p. 3. ProQuest 2297396177.
Jonathan Hale, Stanley Andrews, Harry Hayden and Robert Strange are impressive fill-ins as Arnold's business associates.
- ^ Wear (March 1, 1939). "Film Reviews: The Saint Strikes Back". Variety. p. 15. ProQuest 1505735682.
Neil Hamilton, Barry Fitzgerald, Russell Hopton, Edward Gargan, Gilbert Emery and Robert Strange head the well-balanced support.
- ^ Cameron, Kate (March 31, 1939). "Hail and Farewell to Perfect Dance Team". New York Daily News. p. 58. ProQuest 2285061079.
Edna Mae Oliver, Walter Brennan, Lew Fields (who plays himself in the story), Etienne Giradot, Janet Beecher, Robert Strange and Rolfe Sedan give splendid support to the stars
- ^ Hale, Wanda (March 25, 1939). "Just 1 Dead End Kid in Strand's Melodrama; Humphrey Bogart visits Robert Strange in this scene from 'You Can't Get Away With Murder'". New York Daily News. p. 25B. Retrieved July 28, 2024.
- ^ "'Castle on the Hudson' OK;: Strong Cast Scores In Grim Jail Film". The Hollywood Reporter. February 22, 1940. p. 3. ProQuest 2297337338.
Pat O'Brien invests the warden role with a warm and admirable humanity, Burgess Meredith, in a comparatively brief role, Jerome Cowan, Margot Stevenson, Guinn Williams and all others in the cast give a good account of themselves.
- ^ a b c Cline, William C. (1984). In the Nick of Time : Motion Picture Sound Serials. Jefferson, N.C. : McFarland & Company. p. 142. ISBN 9780899501017. "King of the Royal Mounted was released by Republic in September, 1940. In it, the deliciously sneaky-looking Strange had played John Kettler, the master spy, in a flawless characterization. Six months later, the studio released its masterpiece The Adventures of Captain Marvel. Cast as Professor John Malcolm was the same Robert Strange. [...] Audiences immediately were prepared to see Strange exposed as that villain because of his superb portrayal of the thoroughly wicked Kettler. When the final episode cleared him, there was a note of almost disappointment in the kids' reaction. In his third serial role — the heroine's lost father, Professor Henry Gordon, in The Perils of Nyoka — the fans were ready to accept him as a good guy at last."
- ^ Twomey, Alfred E. (1969). The Versatiles : A Study of Supporting Character Actors and Actresses in the American Motion Picture, 1930-1955. New York: A.S. Barnes and Company. p. 296. SBN 498067920
- ^ "Cashing In". San Pedro News-Pilot. February 5, 1941. p. 8. Retrieved July 28, 2024.
- ^ "'FRONTIER' TOPNOTCH OATER: Suspense Boosts R. Rogers Starrer". The Hollywood Reporter. January 4, 1949. p. 3. ProQuest 2322679683.
Strange is properly nasty as the chief heavy, while old reliable Roy Barcroft makes the most of his opportunities to fight dirty, sneer and scowl.
Further reading
edit- Shaw, Len G. (April 16, 1922). "Gossip of Plays and Playerfolk". Detroit Free Press. pt. 5, p. 7. (Roughly halfway through his 7-month stint with Detroit's Woodward Players, Strange weighs the benefits gained vs. potential pitfalls presented by actors' reliance on the stock company training ground.)